The New Forest is degrading, and Bambi is not to blame.

It may surprise you to learn that the New Forest, one of our few remaining relics of a more holistic Britain, is crumbling. From the inside out. The forest, like so many others in our day and age, plagued by overgrazing. The only difference being that, in this case, unlike other wooded areas continuously degraded through grazing pressure – the Caledonian Pine woods of Scotland, for example – that Bambi is not to blame. And the real culprit is one you may not immediately suspect.

The New Forest is unique among British woodlands. Comprising an intriguing mix of ancient woodland and open heath which, together, provide the ideal conditions for biodiversity to flourish.  Indeed, the forest itself is home to some 92% of Britain’s reptile species, with Slow Worms, Adders and, increasingly threatened Sand Lizards still, mercifully, abundant. It also boasts an incredibly diverse floral community: of ancient Beech trees and towering Oaks, which cast their imposing shadows over an understory rich Holly and Hazel. The botanical elements that make up this great wood, irresistible to woodland birds. Including red-listed species of conservation concern. And, on a good day, one may bear witness to Honey Buzzards pirouetting above the canopy, Lesser-Spotted Woodpeckers foraging amid the daintiest of fronds, or, at dusk, Nightjars hawking the heathland clearings. The New Forest is, by all accounts, the jewel in the crown of our modern woodland realm. Albeit one that is being gradually tarnished.

As well as the creatures listed above, and more amphibians, fungi and endearing invertebrates than you can shake a stick at, the New Forest is also, and quite famously, home to ponies. Ponies that have roamed in the shade of the forest for centuries. And, through the practice of “commoning”, have greatly contributed to the forests current visage. Their persistent grazing helping maintain a favourable condition for much of the wildlife that persists there today. At least until now.

In the present day, the ponies that have for centuries, shaped this special place, are a major factor in its continued demise. Their population soaring from c2000 individuals during the 1960’s, to an estimated 5000 today. An increase aided, in no small part, by subsidies which – under the Under the Verderers’ Grazing Scheme (VGS) – can pay each farmer up to £68.00 per pony, annually. The problem only bolstered by yet more financial incentives for commoners to increase their stock, with a new system of payments, which offers £269 per pony, coming into force just last year. Under the EU-funded Basic Payment Scheme (BPS).

These payments – which effectively reward farmers for increasing the size of their herds – are doubtless a leading factor in the forests current battle with overgrazing. And have, for the large part, gone relatively unscrutinized for many years, until now. With multiple sources now voicing their concerns over the current system, and the impact it is having on the forest ecosystem. And many veteran trees now feeling the effects of an unsustainable number of ponies.

Among those critical of the current schemes is prominent naturalist Chris Packham, who recently expressed his concerns to The Guardian. Warning that if action is not taken to combat overgrazing now, that “there will be no New Forest tomorrow“. While Sam Manning, the founder of the up and coming conservation campaign group ‘Wilder’, has also expressed his concerns on the matter. Echoing worries about the forest and the damage being brought about by its wayward ponies:

“We know that ponies have a grazing intake three times higher than deer. Deer numbers are at a historic low of 2000, while ponies are over 5000. The stripping of bark on beech trees photographed in the guardian article is not the result of ponies as some have suggested. The forestry commission has evidence that it is certain individual ponies. A meeting has been had on this issue by the verderers (minutes available on their website ) and still, nothing has been done about the issue.

There is a lack of political will amongst the managing organisations in the forest, about solving the issue of overgrazing. If this problem is not solved, the long-term condition of the New Forest’s rare and treasured habitats will decline further.“

Sam, who I have spoken to at length about the matter, has also stressed that neither Wilder, nor himself, condone a cull of ponies. Instead drawing attention to the other means by which grazing impact may be reduced:

“Numbers could be reduced by restricting breeding (which is controllable) and overseeing a generational phase out of the current levels. Allowing ponies to live out their natural lives, alternatively, individuals could be sold. Grazing is essential to the new forest ecosystem, too little and habitats scrub over, but too much – and we see the damage to biodiversity that is occurring now, there needs to be a scientifically advised cap on pony numbers, and commoners should be financially incentivised to maintain an optimum grazing level.“

Opinion

Like any issue that clashes with agricultural, and indeed, cultural interests, this is not an argument that is going to vanish anytime soon. Though, to me, the course of action is clear. Pony numbers must be kept in check: both for the sake of the unique ecosystem at the heart of the New Forest, and the many scarce species that call it home. While subsidies have, and continue to, bring about positive change for the environment, they should not be issued absent thought. And their impacts should be properly thought out. Something which, in this case, was clearly not the case. The New Forest is a bastion of life amid our increasingly degraded countryside, and it cannot be allowed to fall into ruin. Commoners must manage their stock appropriately, to mitigate the negative repercussions of overgrazing, and I cannot help but feel that a reevaluation of payment criteria may well be necessary. Both for the New Forest, and other areas similarly plague by overgrazing elsewhere in the UK.

This is an issue that, unlike many others, may be resolved with a few similar changes. Alterations that, I hope, would help reach a beneficial solution for both the embattled forest and those who have worked and managed it for generations. Though only time will tell, I guess.

If you would like to get involved with Wilder, you can check them out on Twitter (@Wilder_UK) or join the movement on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/wilderUK

A focus on Black Grouse decline

The Black Grouse (Tetrao tetrix) is, by far, my favourite upland bird. A vision of unrivalled beauty, clad in flamboyant plumage and boasting a surprisingly timid demeanour. A species which, each year, leks its way into my heart as I make my annual pilgrimage to view the birds in their upland realm. Usually at RSPB Geltsdale, or, should the mood take me, the Scottish Highlands. Grey hen or black cock, it matters not, and many it seems share my affection for the bubbly jock – a local nickname bestowed upon it in parts of Scotland, in reference to the bubbling call of amorous males. And many, like me, seek them out whenever possible. Ventures that sadly, increasingly result in failure, as like many other British species, the Black Grouse finds itself ensnared in a downwards spiral. Our population of this charismatic game bird, plummeting, year on year. A historic decline that continues until this day, and one that I thought I would look atin this post.

Black Grouse – RSPB (http://www.rspb.org.uk/joinandhelp/otherwaystohelp/famousblackgrouse.aspx)

A History of Declines

The historic decline of the Black Grouse is well documented. An all too familiar tale of human ignorance, inactivity and the resulting decline of an iconic species.

Once a familiar sight across much of Britain, present in quantities enough to sustain shooting on a level wholly unheard of today, grouse populations began to plummet during the latter half of the 19th century. Across much of the species range within the UK. Remaining somewhat numerous until the 1970’s, where a rough estimate put their numbers at somewhere in the region of 10,000 to 100,000 birds. Though it is thought that the real number fell well within the lower portion of this range. The species, subject to a 28% reduction in range between 1968 and 1988 alone.

 Once a familiar sight across much of Britain, present in quantities enough to sustain shooting on a level wholly unheard of today, grouse populations began to plummet during the latter half of the 19th century, across much of its range within the UK. Remaining somewhat numerous until the 1970’s, where a rough estimate put their numbers at somewhere in the region of 10,000 to 100,000 birds – though this is thought that the real number fell well within the lower portion of this range. The species, subject to a 28% reduction in range between 1968 and 1988.

Since the time of these early surveys, grouse populations have continued to free fall, until fairly recently. The overall population of this iconic species declining from an estimated 25,000 lekking males in 1990, to just 6510 in 1996 (SNH, 2016). With an average rate of decline of 10% per year. Mirroring regional trends across the UK: with only 139 lekking males recorded in Wales during 1997, and widespread declines across parts of Scotland. Though it was the English population that suffered the most. With recent regional extinctions in Staffordshire and Lancashire and the complete failure to find any remaining birds in areas subject to previous extinctions. Including the New Forest and Exmoor, where grouse persisted until the 1960’s. Indeed, some estimates suggest that, at present, the Black Grouse population in some areas is continuing to fall each year, with annual declines of between 10-40% observed.

It should be noted, that Black Grouse in some areas have recovered somewhat in recent times. With surveys in 2002 and 2006 showing an increase in numbers in Northern England, from 773 males to 1029, and exceptional increases observed in the Yorkshire dales between 1998 and 2006. The latter increase estimated to stand somewhere in the region of 128%. Though, in more recent years, this population seems to have declined, once more, to within the region of 700 males.

More recently still, the Welsh grouse population increased to around 328 birds, with similar (yet isolated) increases observed in parts of Scotland, including Dumfries and Galloway. Despite these recent gains, however, the Black Grouse remains one of Britains most threatened birds species and a BAP (Biodiversity Action Plan) priority species. With the British population of increasing significance, given the wider declines taking place across Europe – where the species has decreased catastropically across much of its known range.

Causes of the Decline

There are many catalysts for the decline of the Black Grouse. With habitat loss, perhaps the most pressing. And overgrazing, by both sheep and deer, thought to be a major contributing factor. Specifically, across areas of heath and grassland favoured by Black Grouse – where increasing numbers of ungulates remove much of the cover grouse broods utilise to feed. The loss of botanical elements such as Bilberry and birch scrub proving particularly  detrimental. Elsewhere, agricultural intensification across formerly arable areas is also thought to have removed an important food source for some grouse populations. And a subsequent loss of invertebrate life in some places is also thought to be a contributing factor – with insects of particular importance to grouse chicks. (See here for more information).

Habitat loss and degradation also extend to wooded areas favoured by Black Grouse, particularly conifer plantations. Many of which, until fairly recently, provided a refuge for the species. It is thought that young plantations, such as those planted within the second half of the 20th century, typically benefit grouse numbers, supporting a dense understory of heather and Bilberry. These plantations typically mature within 10-15 years, however, thus shading out this understory and removing both nesting habitat and a food source for grouse. An increasingly common trend in current times as timber plantations, planted in past decades, reach fruition. While conifer plantations, in their infancy, may bolster populations, it is accepted that, overall, afforestation may have contributed to an overall decrease in habitat suitability for Black Grouse.

Habitat fragmentation is likely also a factor in recent declines, with many grouse populations now hemmed up in areas that favour their needs. And separated, sometimes by great distances, from other populations. This reduces genetic diversity, leads to inbreeding and, over-all, means that the most isolated colonies are unlikely to persist much longer. (SNH, 2016).

In addition to habitat loss, it is also thought that shooting could have played a part in the decline of the Black Grouse. Shooting which, despite low numbers, continues until this day – between the 20th of August and the 10th of December each year. While most estates that still possess Black Grouse do not harbour numbers enough to sustain driven shoots, of the kind seen in previous centuries, a number of birds are shot each year on walk-up days. And more still are killed accidentally, due to mistaken identity, often during driven shoots for Red Grouse. Particularly greyhens, which may appear somewhat similar to the untrained eye. To combat this, some estates now impose a fine for any Black grouse killed in this way, though these are likely not enough to provide a serious deterrent. Illegal shooting, for trophy birds, has also been reported at Black Grouse leks in recent years and is seen as serious wildlife crime.

In addition to the factors listed above, a number of other issues have been linked to the decline of this iconic bird. With predation foremost among them. Indeed, species such as Fox, Stoat and Carrion Crow are thought to have a profound impact on grouse numbers in some places, while links have also been found to Pine Marten. Particularly during studies in Northern Europe which showed grouse numbers to increase immediately after the removal of martens (Angelstam 1984; Willebrand 1988). This is likely the reason that some  of our healthiest grouse populations now persist on moorland estates – where such predators (with the exception of martens) are vigorously controlled.

Other issues associated with the collapse of the Black Grouse population includes deer fencing – with which the birds collide with some frequency – and weather. And it is clear, that despite recent gains, and the tireless work of conservation bodies, more must be done to bring this species back from the brink. With the shooting of “black game” becoming increasingly rare and habitat slowly being reinstated, there may well be hope for the future. And I, for one, long for the day that the bubbly jock once more roams the length and breadth of upland Britain.Optimistic? Perhaps…

A Disgraceful Decision by Natural England

This week, in an incomprehensible show of ignorance, Natural England granted a licence for a Northumbrian gamekeeper to lethally control “up to 10 Buzzards” to protect non-native pheasant poults.  This appalling announcement comes less than a year after the High Court ruled that Natural England was “wrong” to deny keeper Richard McMorn a license to kill Buzzards, which they have now on five separate occasions. The decision has, rightfully, angered many, if the social media storm that proceeded the announcement is anything to go by, but was surely welcomed by Mr McMorn, who has repeated claimed that Buzzards are rendering his business “unviable” through repeated predation of young pheasants.

According to Natural England, the licenses issued are time-restricted and strictly controlled. They also stipulate that the license is to be used in unison with non-lethal measures and that only Buzzards in the direct vicinity of pheasant pens may be controlled. Presumably through shooting? Does this matter? No, of course not. And all of this has come as little consolation to nature lovers who feel that by allowing such actions, that Natural England are making a mockery of the protective legislation that safeguards our raptors. Buzzards themselves, despite being reasonable common at present, still only consolidating their expansion following their near extinction mere decades before. You guessed it, as a result of persecution.

The RSPB have voiced their disapproval at the decision (see Martin Harper’s Blog) stating plainly that “the killing of a recovering British bird of prey to protect an introduced gamebird for the benefit of commercial interest is wrong“, while elsewhere the move has been heavily condemned by Chris Packham, Domonic Dyer and other notable commentators. Each of whom appears as staggered as I am at NE’s breathtaking disregard for the buzzards protected status, opting to effectively legalise the persecution of a recovering raptor to protect a non-native and damaging species. Forty-five million of which are released each year in to the UK to the detriment of reptile and amphibian populations. And possibly, to a host of other, under-researched side effects.

Personally, I feel that this decision makes a mockery of Natural Englands’s claim that they are working towards “securing a healthy natural environment for people to enjoy, where wildlife is protected and England’s landscapes are safeguarded for future generations“. It shows a monumental disregard for the hard work of conservationists and the laws that were able to reverse the buzzards fortunes and sets a VERY dangerous precedent for how we deal with predatory species in the future. Will they grant licenses for the control of Ospreys to protect fish stocks when their population reaches a “problematic” (or natural) level.. Will they sanction the death of Hen Harriers to protect grouse shooting interests? I do hope not and sincerely hope they take heed of the current outcry and reverse their decision. As they have done in the past. And may well do again, if we act, now…

Some people will say that in writing this, I am confirming my status as an “anti”, though this is not the case. I have engaged positively with gamekeepers in the past and have worked alongside a number of them, and as such, try my best not to generalise. This said, McMorn’s persistent war on buzzards is nothing short of infuriating when you take into consideration that the pheasants in question are kept in open-air pens. Without a roof – a relatively cheap alternative to slaughter that would meet commercial needs, and protect said raptors. Would it not make sense to at least attempt to take “good care” of your birds – if you feel that good care involves raising them to be shot – before pointing the finger at predators. Natural England have claimed that “all alternatives” have been explored prior to their decision  though I cannot help but feel disillusioned at this. Shooting should never be the go-to option and common sense dictates that there must be another way to protect your stock.

Right now a million questions relating to the subject are floating around in my head, the most persistent of which being “what does a few buzzard-related fatalities matter in the grand scheme of things. Especially as many of your pheasants will be killed by traffic anyways”. I am going to try to do something a little proactive with my frustration in this instance and write to both Natural England and Environment Secretary Andrea Leadsom. If only to vent and express my complete and utter disgust at the matter. If you wish to do the same, here are the relevant email addresses:

  wildlife@naturalengland.org.uk                                 andrea.leadsom.mp@parliament.uk

(https://raptorpersecutionscotland.wordpress.com/)

#VisionForNature: A Groundbreaking Call For Change

 This week, to widespread applause, ‘A Focus on Nature’ published their phenomenal #VisionForNature report. A document like no other – one in which a plethora of incredibly passionate young naturalists set out their vision for nature by the year 2050. A document which, following two years of hard work on behalf of those involved, stands as a loud, proud, call for change; urging the government to immediately step up and offer our embattled wildlife the increased protection it so desperately requires. The report can be downloaded here and truly, if you read one thing today, let it be this.

Vision For Nature is bold, very bold: highlighting the shortcomings of politicians and decision makers who, to date, have done very little to safeguard the environment. Not only does it call for the increased protection of wildlife and wild spaces, but for a fundamental shift in the way we view and interact with nature. It calls for a greener society and ecological integration into all areas of daily life. Calling on businesses, food producers, educators and landowners alike to do their bit, and ensure that by 2050, nature will find itself in a far better state. The report itself setting out recommendations for each group in turn, offering clear intruction as to how each – farmers, landowners, politicians and more – can shape the future of the British ecosystem. In the report, no stone is left unturned and no possibility unexplored, and AFON do not hold back when stressing how things could, and should be, in the future.

Vision For Nature is also unprecedented in the sense that it also calls for change on behalf  of conservation bodies. A brave move, and one that personally, I find nothing short of admirable. It exposes the flaws of the nature conservation movement, with a notable example being the lack of social and racial diversity in the field. The report calls on NGOs to be open their doors to those from all walks of life, not just the priviledged few who, at present, can afford to enter the field. It states the need for a living wage for interns and for a rethink of entry requirments for roles within the sector. Moves which, if acted upon, will surely inspire many and more young people, from all backgrounds, to take up arms in the protection of nature.

In short, the Vision For Nature has great potential, both as a constituion for future, ecologically-concious goverments and bench-mark to which each and every one of us must strive to reach, if we are to protect nature. It has the potential to not only influence policy, but to influence the very lives of each and every person living in the UK. Particualy young people, who through education and increased opportunies may well find themselves in a position to enact further positive change come 2050. After, of couse, the aspirations set out in the report are met. Which, choosing to think positively, I am sure they will be. Due, in no small part, to the hard work and determination of the young people currently rallying in defense of the natural world. Well done to all involved, Vision for Nature truly is remarkable.

Further #VisionForNature reading can be found here, here and here. Please do take a look.

How YOU can help the environment post Brexit.

Dr Rob Sheldon recently published an excellent blog post on what average joes like you, and me, can do to safeguard the environment post-Brexit. The piece can be found here, I would really advise everyone to give it a read.

In it, Rob sets out a number of things each and every one of us can do to ensure our voices are heard, and the topics we care about – whether that be conservation, protective legislation or anything else – are discussed. Now more than ever it is imperative that we raise a clamour of the kind never before seen in Britain. It is important that we unify, pool resources and provide a powerful voice for the environment which looks set to be swept under the rug once more – with our politicians once more turning a blind eye to the needs of our embattled countryside. As such, I have included below, courtesy of Rob, a list of eight things you all should consider in the coming months. With an extra addition by myself.

1)      If you aren’t a member or supporter of a conservation or environmental NGO, then consider joining one. RSPB, The Wildlife Trusts, Greenpeace and Friends of the Earth have a proven track record in influencing wildlife and environmental policy.

2)      If you are a member of a wildlife or conservation NGO, then please write to the Chief Executive asking them to take immediate and positive action for a post-Brexit environment. Ask them to join forces with other NGOs and organisations to provide a large unified voice that can’t be ignored.

3)      Join the Green Party as the only political party in the UK that has the environment at its core.

4)      Write to your MP and explain your concerns for the future of the UK environment and that you want to see the environment at the heart of the Brexit negotiations. Find your MP here.

5)      Get active on social media? Do you use Twitter or Facebook? If so make regular contributions about the environment. Follow the NGOs and leading environmental figures and help spread a positive message.

6)      The Environmental Audit Committee have recently launched an inquiry into the future of the natural environment after the EU referendum. Take part, either by contributing directly or asking any NGOs that you are a member of to put across your views.

7)      Zach Haynes has recently set up a petition on the UK Government and Parliament website asking for strong environmental and wildlife laws to be adopted. If you agree, then simply sign it.

8)      Talk to your family, friends and work colleagues about the natural environment and how wonderful it is. Help create a sense of pride in our natural environment. Yes, it could be better, but it could also be worse.

9) Join us at Wilder, a new wildlife-specific, grassroots campaign set up to lobby support for the natural world. An organisation which, though in its infancy, is helmed by a dedicated group of young conservationists – each passionate about preserving the laws that safeguard our wildlife. I will be tweeting and blogging from their accounts for the foreseeable future, and look forward to sharing a lot more excellent article, such as the one above, in the very near future.

Personal Update

As many of you will know, I have been rather busy of late undertaking another field season in the Scottish Highlands. Due to this, my blogging efforts have been rather lax of late. It is however, both humbling and rather delightful to see so many people continuing to read my various wildlife-related bits and pieces. I feel 2016 has finally seen me advancing more progressively towards a career in environmental journalism/nature writing and, though I still have a long way to go, I am feeling a little more optimistic. As I am now blessed with an internet connection once more, I thought I would share a quick list of the other places where anyone interested can keep up to date with my antics and various waffling:

  1. Wildlife Articles – I currently write for, and manage the social media for the popular environmental-blogging platform.
  2. Conservation Job – I currently hold a column on the Conservation Job careers portal, covering topical issues in a literature review format.
  3. Wilder – I recently took on the social media operations for Wilder, a new activism organisation aiming to bolster wildlife conservation in the UK. Early days but watch this space for future updates.
  4. Facebook – A new Facebook page where I intend to share blog updates for the forseeable future.
  5. Local Patch Reporters – I will be sharing my local patch based posts on the BBC Wildlife Forum, my thread here has already hit 25,000 views (yikes).
  6. Twitter and LinkedIN – You can, of course, follow me here too should you wish to.
  7. In Print – Two recent forays into the realm of “real writing” include a piece in ‘Summer – an anthology for the changing seasons’, by the wonderful Melissa Harrison and a factual article centered on Willow Tits, in the The Harrier.

 

Flaviu – An Inadvertent Pioneer?

Almost a fortnight past, Dartmoor Zoo was the location of a daring escape. One centred on Flaviu, a male Carpathian Lynx, and his successful break for freedom. Slipping off the shackles of his captivity mere hours after being transferred to the zoo from Kent and quickly melting away into the Devon countryside where he remains at large, despite the best efforts of the zoo staff trying to relocate him. And, of course, the less than savoury efforts of those seeking to dispatch him.

Eurasian Lynx – By Aconcagua (talk) – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6358217

If you choose to discount the unconfirmed sightings of Lynx that have abounded in counties such as Northumberland over the past few decades, Flaviu is officially the first Lynx to reside in the UK since the species was extirpated in medieval times.The first Lynx to traverse our forests since humans carelessly hunted them into oblivion. His escape triggering delight among many conservationists, myself included, keen to see just how the big cat will take to life in modern day Britain. Alas it would seem that we are not alone in this regard and the wider reaction to the escape has not been as negative as one might expect. Sure we have had to endure a few frustrating “beast” headlines and a handful of disheartening reports of people attempting to track down and kill the cat, but that is as far as the negativity goes. Both the staff of Dartmoor Zoo and the people of Devon appear altogether unphased by the big cat prowling in their midst. A promising outlook!

In the ten days since Flaviu escaped, not one human/lynx conflict has been reported, unsurprisingly. No sheep have been hauled off into the woods to die, no family pets have been eviscerated and certainly, no walkers have been mauled. Facts which it would seem, actively discredit the scaremongering of those opposed to Lynx reintroduction. The farmers, crofters and other individuals who have been oh so vocal in voicing their distress at the proposed scheme. It would seem that, for all intents and purposes, Flaviu has blended seamlessly into the ecosystem, with not one confirmed sighting since his initial disappearing act and certainly no unsavoury incidents.

So, not only are rewilding supporters correct to assume that Lynx are neither a public health hazard or a menace to livestock, but also correct in their assumption that they avoid human contact like the plague. Something the Lynx Trust have attempted to stress on multiple occasions and something which, it would seem, applies to all Lynx, both captive and wild. Flaviu, of course, hailing from captive stock – his wild counterparts likely even more elusive and thus even more likely to avoid humans.

While I do not intend to celebrate the misfortune of Dartmoor Zoo – losing a Lynx must surely come with its consequences – and fully suspect that Flaviu will be returned to the zoo at some point, I will freely admit that the prospect of a Lynx once again roaming the British Isles excites me. Perhaps I am being overly optimistic, but surely, with each day the animal spends in the wild absent “incident” we come one step closer to the prospect of an official reintroduction scheme. Surely, with each day that passes absent attacks on people or livestock, the arguments of those opposing such moves crumble further into obscurity. Flaviu has, through an exceptionally lucky escape, provided us with an unparalleled opportunity to study the impacts of the return of this iconic predator to our shores. And the impact such a presence will have on local people. Many of whom, so far at least, appear to have taken quite fondly to Flaviu.

While I suspect this particular Lynx will enjoy only a short-lived stint in the wild, I hope that this incident will go some way to rectifying the rampant misconceptions many hold about this endearing cat. It may still be a pipe dream, but perhaps, one day, people will look back on Flaviu as a pioneer of sorts. As the cat which aided in the realisation that Lynx are not a menace, nor a danger to livestock – rather a quintessential part of a healthy ecosystem. Their role in controlling the populations of prey species, sorely required in the UK at present.

 

 

 

 

An Amateur Look at Otter Diet

In keeping with adaptation and evolution fish dominate the diet of L.lutra within freshwater ecosystems, though some localised populations occasionally differ from this trend (Webb, 1975; Jenkins et al, 1979; Carss, 1995). Among the fish species consumed otters show bias towards slower moving species where available (Erlinge, 1968) – a theory supported by the dominance of carp (Kloskowski, 1999; Cousins et al, 2011), eel (Britton et al, 2006; Chanin, 1981) and Italian barbel (Arca & Prigioni, 1987) at alternate locations across the otters range, while particular emphasis is given to eels as a preferred food source (Williams, 2000; Webb, 1975). It is, however, important to note that in accordance with Erlinge (1968) prey abundance may overrule individual bias when it comes to the selection of fish species by L.lutra; a theory supported by a preference for fast swimming Salmonids among some otter populations (Kortan et al, 2010; Ludwig et al, 2002). with Ludwig et al (2002) lending particular weight to the theory of abundance based prey selection by highlighting a distinct difference in diet between ecologically poor and rich habitats.

Small fish species are consumed in abundance, often more frequently that larger ones with species such as minnow, stickleback and bullhead all common place in the diet of L.lutra (Williams, 2000, Preston et al, 2006). Evidence in support of this theory comes from the popularity of bullhead among otters in South-West England (Britton et al, 2006) and stickleback amongst otters from Northern Ireland (Preston et all, 2006) though there is little evidence of smaller species wholly dominating otter diet at any location. These species do however have a relatively high frequency of occurrence, factoring in the diet of otters from populations in England (Copp and Roche, 2003), Denmark (Taastrùm and Jacobsen, 1999) and Finland (Ludwig et al, 2002) among others. This suggests that in keeping with Carss and Parkinson (1996) the proportions of these smaller fish species may have been underestimated as a result of flawed data analysis methods, implying that they could be of greater importance amongst certain otter communities. The small size of the bones within these species and the subsequent ease at which they are digested or overlooked are likely of paramount importance. A high dependence on smaller species and young individuals would further strengthen the theory of abundance based pretty selection given the tendency for these individuals to far outnumber larger species and mature individuals within the environment.

Though regarded as being of secondary importance  amphibian species may dominate otter diet in some locations (Erlinge, 1967; Carss, 1995) with a notable example coming from Jedrzejewska et al (2001) who revealed that frogs constituted 58% of otter diet in the Białowiza Forest, Poland. Where they are not the dominant food source amphibians are still a significant source of nutrition across much of Palearctic zone (Ottino & Giller, 2004; Krawczyk et al, 2011; Britton et al, 2006; Lanszki et al, 2001) with percentage frequencies of 17.1% or above seemingly commonplace (Britton et al, 2006).

It is argued that otter predation on amphibian’s shows a distinct temporal trend with the highest levels of predation recorded during the spring period when these species accumulate to spawn (Fairley, 1984; Weber, 1990). This is supported by some dietary assessments including those of Ottino & Giller (2004) and Britton et al (2010) both of whom noted increased predation rates during the spring period. Results from some studies contrast greatly with this temporal pattern, however, suggesting that amphibian species could be important food source year round with a frequency of occurrence of 16.5% during the month of January noted by Kloskowski (1999) echoing similar findings by Ludwig et al (2002). Both of these show amphibians to be an important food source outside of the spring period. As is the case with fish species it is, therefore, likely that amphibians are predated based on their availability in the environment rather than by preference (Jedrzejewska et al, 2001; Weber, 1990). Little preference is shown for individual species within the amphibian family though frogs and toads dominate across the Palearctic zone with newt and salamander species showing little prevalence in the literature with the exception of a single great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) noted by Britton et al (2006).

Alongside amphibians, birds are viewed as being of secondary importance in the diet of L.lutra with some stating seasonal abundance as the main catalyst for predation (Carss, 1995). Perhaps the most conclusive evidence in support of this comes from De La Hay (2005) who in his study of otters on Shapwick Heath, Somerset revealed a peak predation level of 60% during the month of July. This coincides with the known avian breeding season and suggests that otters are making clear use of the increased vulnerability of inexperienced fledgelings and brooding adults. This temporal exploitation of avian species was also observed by Lanszki et al (2001), Kloskowski (1999) and earlier by Chanin (1981) both of whom concluded that otter predation on birds peaked during this time.

Birds are however frequently consumed outside of the summer period and factor, to varying degrees, in the diet of otters in all seasons (Ottino and Giller, 2004; Clavero et al, 2003; Ruiz-Olmo and Palazon, 1997; Britton et al, 2006) highlighting their status as a regular but less significant addition to the diet of L.lutra in keeping with similar conclusions reached by Carss (1995). The sporadic predation of bird species and obvious ability to make use of seasonal gluts yet again shows the opportunistic nature of L.lutra with predation taking place based on both prey abundance and by means of chance encounters (Cousins et al, 2011). Among the avian species consumed by L.lutra water birds are the most frequently consumed in keeping with the shared habitat requirements of both predator and prey. Among these species, Ralliformes and Anseriformes predominate (Cousins et al, 2011; Chanin, 1981) though Columbiformes (Cousins et al, 2011), Passeriformes (Chanin, 1981) and Suliformes (De La Hey, 2005) have all been noted.

Mammals factor minimally in the diet of L.lutra and are generally thought of as insignificant when compared to more widely predated prey groups such as fish and amphibians (Jenkins et al, 1979; Carss, 1995). The available literature supports this assumption with mammalian species comprising only a fraction of otter diet across the Palearctic zone; a fact highlighted by low rates of occurrence in Poland (Krawczyk et al, 2010), England (Cousins et al, 2011) and Italy (Arca and Prigioni, 1987) among others (Britton et al, 2006; Remonti et al, 2007; Jedrzejewska et al, 2001). Though seemingly of little importance mammalian species are however a regular feature in otter diet occurring to a small degree in the majority of studies with the exception of Lanszki et al (2010) in their study of a Hungarian otter population. The regular occurrence of mammals throughout the literature further portrays the otter as an opportunist with the ability to exploit a prey source where abundant or when chance encounters make predation possible. Otters show little preference for individual mammal species,  apparent from the wide range of species consumed throughout the Palearctic zone. Of these, rabbits and smaller species are most frequently observed, likely due to their abundance in the wider ecosystem (Britton et al, 2006; Remonti et al, 2007; Cousins et al,2011). It should be noted however, that otters have  been known to prey on larger animals, most notably lambs (Harris, 1986) and hare (Conroy & Calder, 2000), though some incidences of otters consuming large mammalian prey are undoubtedly the result of carrion consumption such was the case with Lanszki et al (2001).

Further Reading

  1. Almeida, D., Copp, G. H., Masson, L., Mir, A, R., Murai, M. and Sayer, C. D. 2012. Changes in the diet of a recovering Eurasian otter population between the 1970s and 2010. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 22 (1), pp. 26–35.
  2. Arca, G. and Prigioni, C. 1987. Food of the otter on the Fiora River(central Italy). Acta Theriologica, 32 (10), pp. 134–140.
  3. Britton, J. R., Pegg, J., Sheperd, J. S. and Toms, S. 2006. Revealing the Prey Items of the otter Lutra lutra in South West England Using Stomach Content Analysis. Folia Zoology, 55 (2), p. 167–174.
  4. Chanin, P. and Jefferies, D. 1978. The decline of the otter Lutra lutra L. in Britain: an analysis of hunting records and discussion of causes. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 10 (3), pp. 305–328.
  5. Cousins, L., Tansley, D. and Hepburn, L. 2011. Investigation into the Dietary Habits of the Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra) in the Country of Essex. UCN Otter Spec. Group Bul, 28 (2), pp. 76-82.

Image Credit

  1. By Catherine Trigg – Flickr, CC BY 2.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=2220697

A Spotlight on Himalayan Balsam

Of all the wildflowers I enjoyed as a child, Himalayan Balsam is one of the most memorable. Mainly because, in my youth, popping the little green grenades produced by the plant when it goes to seed, was once the most exciting feature of my woodland walks in late summer, when the pods come to fruition. Popping the pods and watching the small, brown seeds rain like confetti, ever entertaining. Even now, knowing fine well the havoc brought about by the species, balsam has a certain appeal. It’s subtle, orchid pink flowers equally as beautiful as any of our native blooms and the sickly sweet smell emitted by the plant, particularly on rainy days, always welcome. As is the sight of bumblebees and wasps, stained white by the plants pollen, frantically buzzing between the ample blooms in the summertime..

This said, while I do somewhat admire Balsam, both for its beautiful and its sheer tenacity, it has quickly become one of our most maligned invasive species. Holding an undisputed place in the inglorious triumvirate of our most problematic plants – the other two places going to Japanese Knotweed and the monstrous Giant Hogweed. The sight of Balsam, along our waterways and in our woods, is not unusual.  Indeed, my local woodland is positively bursting with it. Something which, recently, caused me to look a little further into the plants history and the problems caused by it in the British ecosystem. The results of which can be found below.

Origins

Himalayan Balsam, or Impatiens glandulifera, to use its scientific name is a large, annual plant species native to, as its name suggests, the Himalayan mountains of East Asia. Growing alongside the colossal peaks and quaint streams of Nepal, Myanmar and other nearby nations.

The story of balsam in the UK is an all too familiar tale, brought to our shores in 1839 to adorn the gardens of the aristocracy. Many of whom, during the Victorian era were in the midst of a “wild gardening” phase. Something which lead the green-fingered elite to embellish woodlands with exotic blooms capable of not just withstanding the British climate, but spreading to form large, ornamental stands. A process which lead to the widespread planting of many species that we view as detrimental today and perhaps best described by William Robinson, author of ‘The Wild Garden‘ who writes:  “the principle of wild gardening was naturalizing or making wild innumerable beautiful natives of many regions of the earth in our woods, wild and semi-wild places, rougher parts of pleasure grounds, etc“

These initial introductions were undoubtedly responsibly for the spread of balsam into the British ecosystem, something which had already taken place by 1855. A mere fifteen years after its initial introduction. This widespread, ornamental, planting of balsam continued well into the 1900’s though as the decades advanced, I.glandulifera began to appeal to more than just those possessing grandiose gardens. Due to the speed at which it grows, and its tendency to exist in large thickets, balsam soon became a favourite of everyday gardeners also. Mainly used to cover large areas of exposed ground – the plant itself undeterred by poor soil, rubble or pollution – and, according to some sources, also as a means of replicating the vibrant gardens of the elite. With a single balsam seed enough to produce some 1000 plants in a mere five years. Indeed, by 1909 the species was a firm favourite in country gardens. A trend which continued up to the modern day with balsam still being purposefully distributed until the late 1990’s (and probably later). The accounts below, taken from the paper shown at the end of this article, standing testament to this:

  • In the early 1990s, Mrs Gubbin of Reading collected seed from a friend’s garden, introduced it to her own garden, and from there spread it to other gardens and to local hedgerows. She considers it very useful for filling in empty spaces and providing background for planting.
  • Mrs Holms of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in the 1990s collected seeds from her son’s garden in Snettisham in Norfolk, for her cottage garden at Belsay in Newcastle. ‘Now I am gradually furnishing all the gardens in the village with these plants for the seed fly everywhere.’
  • Mrs Guych of Birmingham recalls balsam in their garden c. 2 miles from the centre of Birmingham in 1917. In the late 1950s she took it to a garden in Ledbury (Herefordshire). She also transferred it in the 1990s, from the River Trothy in Monmouthshire, to a garden in Solihull.
  • In the 1990s Mrs Edwards of St. Albans received one plant for her garden from a neighbour, apparently from seed from St Lucia, and has since sent it to Redbourn, to Essex, and to Luton.

The Problem

The posed  by balsam in the UK centers on how quick the species spreads, the very reason it became popular with Victorian gardeners in the first place. As I have said, balsam seeds spread when the pods in which they are held explode, a process known by some as “ballistic dispersal“. This allows the seeds of the plant to spread up to four meters from their original location and can quickly lead to stands of balsam engulfing whole areas of the landscape. Also, due to the tendency of balsam to grow near water, the seeds often find themselves carried many miles downstream of their original location. The seeds themselves remaining viable for up to two years, meaning they can travel great distances before making landfall and growing anew.

The explosive nature of balsam is however, only half of the story. Where the species takes root it can have serious implications for the ecology of that area – mainly through direct competition with native ground flora. Competition which balsam, due to the speed at which it grows, often wins. Quickly forming a dense canopy which shades out and smothers other plant species. On top of this, it would appear that many native pollinators actively favour balsam over native species, further reducing the ability of other plants to seed and therefore, spread. Finally, as an annual, balsam is subject to die backs in winter and where it the only species in residence – as is often the case due to matters mentioned previously – can leave river banks bare during this period. Thus making them liable to erosion, particularly during floods.

Can balsam be controlled? Well, yes, though the methods currently being deployed against the species appear inadequate at best. An assumption based on the continued spread of the species across Britain. Among these methods, pulling is often preferred. A process which involves pulling out the plants – which are shallow-rooted and thus easily removed – early in the year, before they have the chance to flower. Something which has been shown to destroy stands of balsam within 2-3 years. Elsewhere, strimming is also an option, though it must be undertaken regularly, before the plant has flowered. By far the most effective means of controlling balsam however appears to be chemical control, with both spraying and injection often used. Though the latter is both costly and time consuming and the former, coupled with the close vicinity of water bodies, often comes with pollution risks.

Source Material and Further Reading: Himalayan balsam – the human touch. Ian D. Rotherham (2000)

Scotland so far, in pictures..

With little time to blog about my Scotland experience so far this year I thought I would let my pictures do the talking, for once. Below is only a small selection of the natural wonders observed so far this season, omitting many other special sights: Hen Harrier, Merlin, Golden Eagle and the like, all of which have been plentiful so far this summer. I am not a photographer, not by a long shot, but stand quite pleased with some of them.

Green-veined White
Painted Lady
Large Heath
Common Blue
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Ptarmgain
Ptarmagin

 

#PatchChat: No Place Like Home

There really is no place like home. Having arrived back for some much needed TLC following two months surveying in the Highlands, this week I set about reacquainting myself with the local patch. My how things have changed since I departed at the back-end of Spring.

The Blyth is certainly in bloom at present, the meadows (verges left to grow wild by the local council) alive with resplendent purple and radiant yellow. The blooms of Black Knapweed, Yellow Rattle, Trefoil and Common Spotted Orchid too numerous to count. Elsewhere the areas of waste-ground are looking similarly kaleidoscopic, Biting Stonecrop and Viper’s Bugloss two of the more impressive finds over the last few days. The towering, sapphire blue blooms of the latter providing a real draw to bumblebees with no less than six species noted today alone. Elsewhere, the wood has begun to resemble somewhat of a tropical rainforest, overgrown and very, very green. Bramble, Balsam and some truly colossal Butterbur leaves rendering some areas totally impassable. Perhaps I should invest in a machete?

(From the top) Dog Rose, Yellow Rattle, Common Spotted Orchid & Viper’s Bugloss

The various leafy areas of the patch have, of course, proven irresistible to insects, with butterflies a particular delight this week. Ringlet and Meadow Brown two of the more common species but augmented, in some places, by a healthy dose of Speckled Wood, Green-Veined White, Common Blue and Large Skipper – a real favourite of mine with their vibrant orange/gold wings and short energetic flights. As ever though, it has been the birds that have enthralled the most and, at present, the Blyth and her surroundings are positively bursting with avian life.

Each bush it seems now plays host to fledged young of some description: juvenile Blue Tits with their delightful yellow tinge, immature Stonechats, Robins, Wrens and thrushes. Warblers too are numerous at present, with the area brimming with newly liberated Chiffchaffs. Most of the adult warblers are now singing again, hoping to attract a mate and raise a second brood. Of these, a handful of Grasshopper Warblers reeling from the riverside scrub were perhaps most exciting, with the exception of the years first Reed Warbler emitting its characteristic scratchy chords from the outflow pools. Add to them a plethora of amorous Willow Warbler, Sedge Warbler, Blackcap, Whitethroat and Chiff and you have the makings of a true summer spectacular. Only Garden Warbler continues to elude me..

Speckled Wood, Ringlet and Cheilosia illustrata

Down on the estuary – where I spend most of my time – wader passage has started again, though with more of a fizzle than a bang. A smart looking Greenshank has been in residence for the last few days, feeding on the flats and then retiring to roost alongside the fifty or so Redshank already back. Likewise, each day this week has provided sightings of Whimbrel and a nice mixed flock of Dunlin and Ringed Plover is already accumulating. Presumably, most of these will be failed breeders, returning early after having their nests pilfered by a predator on their breeding sights. Though not in all cases it seems, a juvenile Ringed Plover observed yesterday – its washed out sandy hue contrasting nicely with the more vibrant shades of the adults surrounding it. Elsewhere eleven Turnstone were noted, some of which clad in their ruddy summer finery and three Black-Tailed Godwit were seen. Alongside, of course, an ample supply of Curlew and Lapwing. One only hopes that upon my return in August, something a little scarcer may be found..

The waterfowl of the Blyth, are looking a tad less impressive at present – befitting the summer season when most ducks enter their gloomy eclipse phase. Eider are back in force, some females boasting small broods of wonderfully fluffy ducklings, a trend apparent in the Mallards and Shelducks too. Seventeen Goosander have now built up in the estuary, fishing amid the broken piers of Blyth Harbour most days while elsewhere other aquatic bits and pieces include Teal, Gadwall, a record count of six Canada Goose (unusual, I know) and the odd Mute Swan. Though this does not take into consideration all of the goodies seen on the sea of late. The highlight comprising a single Manx Shearwater heading North yesterday. Closer to shore a feeding frenzy of Gannets was nice to see while a mixed bag of Arctic, Common and Sandwhich Tern, Guillemot, Common Scoter and Shag soon resulted in me losing track of time and spending hours rooted in the sand dunes.

What else? Well a short walk down the road on Monday yielded a welcome touch rarity in the form of the long-staying Bonaparte’s Gull on the Wansbeck Estuary. A new species for me and an educational one if that – half way in between a Black-Headed Gull and a Little. Closer to home, a few hours spent roaming the reaches of the wood produced all the typical characters: Nuthatches transporting food to their nest hole, fledged Treecreepers (another first for me), drumming Great Spotted Woodpeckers and a Buzzard. The latter traversing a branch with what looked to be a vole clasped in its talons. Feeding young perhaps? I have suspected that they breed here for a few years now but have always failed to turn up definitive proof. Perhaps that is best. Elsewhere the Dipper pair continue to feed their ever growing chicks and a particularly confiding Grey Wagtail left me grinning like a Cheshire cat. Lovely birds.

Oh, I forgot to mention a brief glimpse of a Harbour Porpoise on Tuesday..

This will no doubt be the last patch update for a while, duty calls and come Tuesday I will be back off to the uplands. Hopefully to enjoy more tantalising encounters like those shown below, all taken during my ventures over the past few weeks.

Ptarmgain

 

 

 

 

Reblog: Reflecting on Community and Environmental Change

Ben Eagle knocks the ball out of the park once again with yet another fantastic post. This time reflecting on community and environmental change. As someone who has only just started to look into the history (as well as the natural history) of my favourite places, this definitely struck a chord with me. Give it a read!

I have spent the last few days back on my home patch, in north Essex, doing a whistle stop tour of visits to see family and friends before I return to the west country later today. I’m not often one to get homesick but when you return to the place where you grew up something […]

via Reflecting on Community and Environmental Change — thinkingcountry

Guest Blog: Orchids – Alice Hunter

Orchids hold a fascination for many people around the world. For me that began when a Common Spotted Orchid (Dactylorhiza fuchsii) popped up in an unmown area of my parents’ lawn one summer when I was a child. They slowly spread and it became a game each summer to see how many there were flowering alongside the Knapweed in the long grass. Last year there were over thirty.

As I’ve grown, my passion for wildlife has grown too and my love of wildflowers has intensified. I am lucky now to have travelled to some wonderful locations and seen some incredible wild Orchid species. As the Green Winged Orchids (Anacamptis morio) are in full bloom in a local meadow I thought I’d share a few of my favourites and my experiences finding them.

Common Spotted Orchid & Green-Winged Orchid

For many, Orchids can be a confusing group of flowers to study and it is true that they seem to hybridise readily which doesn’t always help with identification. With a little perseverance and a keen eye though, it soon becomes apparent that there are certain characteristics to look out for which will give a definitive answer. The next challenge is where to find them in the first place.

In the French Alps if you want to know where you might find Orchids, ask a local – it seems like almost everybody knows where to find some and they are proud of it too. This is particularly true of some of the bigger, blousier species like the glorious Lady’s Slipper Orchid (Cypripedium calceolus). By contrast, in Britain, it was collected nearly to the point of extinction and now clings on at only one closely guarded site.

I will never forget the first time I saw these spectacular flowers as a teenager on holiday with my parents in Austria, my mother suddenly asked that we stop the car on a quiet country road because she thought she’d seen some and sure enough in the dappled shade there was a clump set back from the road a few meters under the trees. Her knack of spotting unusual flowers from a moving car is incredible and my husband claims I’ve inherited the trait, as I too often ask him to stop in strange places so I can jump out and look at things!

For me one of the appeals is the common names of the Orchids – there are Lady, Man, Military, Frog, Monkey, Bee, Woodcock, Butterfly and Fly Orchids fro name a few. They are often reflective of the individual flower shape or colouring and are somehow quite charming. The Monkey Orchid (Orchis simia) is one of my many favourites with beautiful bright colouring and a very monkey-like shape complete with tail.

Some names are less imaginative but very descriptive such as the Pyramidal Orchid (Anacamptis pyramidalis) named for the shape of the flower spike, or the Burnt Tip Orchid (Neotinea ustulata) which has dark purple flower buds that open from the bottom up into white speckled flowers, and give the impression that the tip of the flower spike is blackened.

There is a sense of the exotic in many species of Orchid, we are of course all familiar with the brightly coloured potted versions available from supermarkets and garden centres but we don’t expect to find anything quite so striking in the wild. I haven’t had the opportunity to visit a jungle habitat to see any really large orchid species (yet!) but I was pleasantly surprised that there are some European species which are not a million miles from those aforementioned shop-bought varieties. Of course the Lady’s Slipper falls into this category but there are others too. The Violet Bird’s Nest Orchid (Limodorum abortivum) of the Alps, and the Eastern Marsh Helleborine (Epipactis veratrifolia) found in Cyprus despite being more common in Asia, are both contenders.

Bird’s Nest Orchid, Lady’s Slipper Orchid and Mirror Orchid.

The most recent orchids I’ve added to my list were in Sardinia where my favourite was the Mirror Orchid (Ophrys speculum). It was quite different from a lot of the other species I had found in the past and illustrates my continual astonishment at just how diverse Orchids are from those which are parasitic and lack chlorophyll such as the Bird’s Nest Orchid (Neottia nidus-avis), to the Fragrant Orchid (Gymnadenia conopsea) which lives up to its name and grows in great swathes where the habitat is suitable. Sometimes even that first species to take my interest surprises me, such as the time I came across a rare variant, Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. rhodochila.

Despite all of my wonder and excitement at finding, photographing and identifying Orchids, there is one major factor that I alluded to earlier which I simply don’t understand: Seemingly in Britain in particular, Orchids continue to be sought for collections to the point of detriment. It is such a shame that these beautiful flowers seem to be at greater risk on home shores than abroad despite the efforts of charities like the Wildlife Trusts and Plantlife. I can only wonder whether I will be able to pass on my love of Orchids to my children in the future as my mother did to me, or whether I will have to settle for telling stories of the days when they grew in the lawn.

To find out more about Alice (and her marvelous work), please visit her blog at: http://www.hunterphotos.co.uk/blog/ or follow her on Twitter at: @AHunterPhotos

Pondering the Prospects for Lowland Rewilding

Another intriguing post by Ben Eagle looking at rewilding in the often forgotten lowlands. Places over overlooked during talk of sprawling pine forests, prowling wolf packs and “unpleasant” grouse moors. Give it a read!

The rewilding fraternity seems to have gathered its main focus thus far around making a case for upland landscapes as the most likely or suitable hosts for rewilding projects. The more productive and urbanised lowlands feature less in the debate. One could say that there are many logical economic and ecological reasons for this. Nonetheless, […]

via Pondering the Prospects for Lowland Rewilding – some reflections on the Rewilding Dorset conference — thinkingcountry