As many of you will know, I have been rather busy of late undertaking another field season in the Scottish Highlands. Due to this, my blogging efforts have been rather lax of late. It is however, both humbling and rather delightful to see so many people continuing to read my various wildlife-related bits and pieces. I feel 2016 has finally seen me advancing more progressively towards a career in environmental journalism/nature writing and, though I still have a long way to go, I am feeling a little more optimistic. As I am now blessed with an internet connection once more, I thought I would share a quick list of the other places where anyone interested can keep up to date with my antics and various waffling:
Wildlife Articles – I currently write for, and manage the social media for the popular environmental-blogging platform.
Conservation Job – I currently hold a column on the Conservation Job careers portal, covering topical issues in a literature review format.
Wilder – I recently took on the social media operations for Wilder, a new activism organisation aiming to bolster wildlife conservation in the UK. Early days but watch this space for future updates.
Facebook – A new Facebook page where I intend to share blog updates for the forseeable future.
Local Patch Reporters – I will be sharing my local patch based posts on the BBC Wildlife Forum, my thread here has already hit 25,000 views (yikes).
Twitter and LinkedIN – You can, of course, follow me here too should you wish to.
In Print – Two recent forays into the realm of “real writing” include a piece in ‘Summer – an anthology for the changing seasons’, by the wonderful Melissa Harrison and a factual article centered on Willow Tits, in the The Harrier.
Almost a fortnight past, Dartmoor Zoo was the location of a daring escape. One centred on Flaviu, a male Carpathian Lynx, and his successful break for freedom. Slipping off the shackles of his captivity mere hours after being transferred to the zoo from Kent and quickly melting away into the Devon countryside where he remains at large, despite the best efforts of the zoo staff trying to relocate him. And, of course, the less than savoury efforts of those seeking to dispatch him.
If you choose to discount the unconfirmed sightings of Lynx that have abounded in counties such as Northumberland over the past few decades, Flaviu is officially the first Lynx to reside in the UK since the species was extirpated in medieval times.The first Lynx to traverse our forests since humans carelessly hunted them into oblivion. His escape triggering delight among many conservationists, myself included, keen to see just how the big cat will take to life in modern day Britain. Alas it would seem that we are not alone in this regard and the wider reaction to the escape has not been as negative as one might expect. Sure we have had to endure a few frustrating “beast” headlines and a handful of disheartening reports of people attempting to track down and kill the cat, but that is as far as the negativity goes. Both the staff of Dartmoor Zoo and the people of Devon appear altogether unphased by the big cat prowling in their midst. A promising outlook!
In the ten days since Flaviu escaped, not one human/lynx conflict has been reported, unsurprisingly. No sheep have been hauled off into the woods to die, no family pets have been eviscerated and certainly, no walkers have been mauled. Facts which it would seem, actively discredit the scaremongering of those opposed to Lynx reintroduction. The farmers, crofters and other individuals who have been oh so vocal in voicing their distress at the proposed scheme. It would seem that, for all intents and purposes, Flaviu has blended seamlessly into the ecosystem, with not one confirmed sighting since his initial disappearing act and certainly no unsavoury incidents.
So, not only are rewilding supporters correct to assume that Lynx are neither a public health hazard or a menace to livestock, but also correct in their assumption that they avoid human contact like the plague. Something the Lynx Trust have attempted to stress on multiple occasions and something which, it would seem, applies to all Lynx, both captive and wild. Flaviu, of course, hailing from captive stock – his wild counterparts likely even more elusive and thus even more likely to avoid humans.
While I do not intend to celebrate the misfortune of Dartmoor Zoo – losing a Lynx must surely come with its consequences – and fully suspect that Flaviu will be returned to the zoo at some point, I will freely admit that the prospect of a Lynx once again roaming the British Isles excites me. Perhaps I am being overly optimistic, but surely, with each day the animal spends in the wild absent “incident” we come one step closer to the prospect of an official reintroduction scheme. Surely, with each day that passes absent attacks on people or livestock, the arguments of those opposing such moves crumble further into obscurity. Flaviu has, through an exceptionally lucky escape, provided us with an unparalleled opportunity to study the impacts of the return of this iconic predator to our shores. And the impact such a presence will have on local people. Many of whom, so far at least, appear to have taken quite fondly to Flaviu.
While I suspect this particular Lynx will enjoy only a short-lived stint in the wild, I hope that this incident will go some way to rectifying the rampant misconceptions many hold about this endearing cat. It may still be a pipe dream, but perhaps, one day, people will look back on Flaviu as a pioneer of sorts. As the cat which aided in the realisation that Lynx are not a menace, nor a danger to livestock – rather a quintessential part of a healthy ecosystem. Their role in controlling the populations of prey species, sorely required in the UK at present.
In keeping with adaptation and evolution fish dominate the diet of L.lutra within freshwater ecosystems, though some localised populations occasionally differ from this trend (Webb, 1975; Jenkins et al, 1979; Carss, 1995). Among the fish species consumed otters show bias towards slower moving species where available (Erlinge, 1968) – a theory supported by the dominance of carp (Kloskowski, 1999; Cousins et al, 2011), eel (Britton et al, 2006; Chanin, 1981) and Italian barbel (Arca & Prigioni, 1987) at alternate locations across the otters range, while particular emphasis is given to eels as a preferred food source (Williams, 2000; Webb, 1975). It is, however, important to note that in accordance with Erlinge (1968) prey abundance may overrule individual bias when it comes to the selection of fish species by L.lutra; a theory supported by a preference for fast swimming Salmonids among some otter populations (Kortan et al, 2010; Ludwig et al, 2002). with Ludwig et al (2002) lending particular weight to the theory of abundance based prey selection by highlighting a distinct difference in diet between ecologically poor and rich habitats.
Small fish species are consumed in abundance, often more frequently that larger ones with species such as minnow, stickleback and bullhead all common place in the diet of L.lutra (Williams, 2000, Preston et al, 2006). Evidence in support of this theory comes from the popularity of bullhead among otters in South-West England (Britton et al, 2006) and stickleback amongst otters from Northern Ireland (Preston et all, 2006) though there is little evidence of smaller species wholly dominating otter diet at any location. These species do however have a relatively high frequency of occurrence, factoring in the diet of otters from populations in England (Copp and Roche, 2003), Denmark (Taastrùm and Jacobsen, 1999) and Finland (Ludwig et al, 2002) among others. This suggests that in keeping with Carss and Parkinson (1996) the proportions of these smaller fish species may have been underestimated as a result of flawed data analysis methods, implying that they could be of greater importance amongst certain otter communities. The small size of the bones within these species and the subsequent ease at which they are digested or overlooked are likely of paramount importance. A high dependence on smaller species and young individuals would further strengthen the theory of abundance based pretty selection given the tendency for these individuals to far outnumber larger species and mature individuals within the environment.
Though regarded as being of secondary importance amphibian species may dominate otter diet in some locations (Erlinge, 1967; Carss, 1995) with a notable example coming from Jedrzejewska et al (2001) who revealed that frogs constituted 58% of otter diet in the Białowiza Forest, Poland. Where they are not the dominant food source amphibians are still a significant source of nutrition across much of Palearctic zone (Ottino & Giller, 2004; Krawczyk et al, 2011; Britton et al, 2006; Lanszki et al, 2001) with percentage frequencies of 17.1% or above seemingly commonplace (Britton et al, 2006).
It is argued that otter predation on amphibian’s shows a distinct temporal trend with the highest levels of predation recorded during the spring period when these species accumulate to spawn (Fairley, 1984; Weber, 1990). This is supported by some dietary assessments including those of Ottino & Giller (2004) and Britton et al (2010) both of whom noted increased predation rates during the spring period. Results from some studies contrast greatly with this temporal pattern, however, suggesting that amphibian species could be important food source year round with a frequency of occurrence of 16.5% during the month of January noted by Kloskowski (1999) echoing similar findings by Ludwig et al (2002). Both of these show amphibians to be an important food source outside of the spring period. As is the case with fish species it is, therefore, likely that amphibians are predated based on their availability in the environment rather than by preference (Jedrzejewska et al, 2001; Weber, 1990). Little preference is shown for individual species within the amphibian family though frogs and toads dominate across the Palearctic zone with newt and salamander species showing little prevalence in the literature with the exception of a single great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) noted by Britton et al (2006).
Alongside amphibians, birds are viewed as being of secondary importance in the diet of L.lutra with some stating seasonal abundance as the main catalyst for predation (Carss, 1995). Perhaps the most conclusive evidence in support of this comes from De La Hay (2005) who in his study of otters on Shapwick Heath, Somerset revealed a peak predation level of 60% during the month of July. This coincides with the known avian breeding season and suggests that otters are making clear use of the increased vulnerability of inexperienced fledgelings and brooding adults. This temporal exploitation of avian species was also observed by Lanszki et al (2001), Kloskowski (1999) and earlier by Chanin (1981) both of whom concluded that otter predation on birds peaked during this time.
Birds are however frequently consumed outside of the summer period and factor, to varying degrees, in the diet of otters in all seasons (Ottino and Giller, 2004; Clavero et al, 2003; Ruiz-Olmo and Palazon, 1997; Britton et al, 2006) highlighting their status as a regular but less significant addition to the diet of L.lutra in keeping with similar conclusions reached by Carss (1995). The sporadic predation of bird species and obvious ability to make use of seasonal gluts yet again shows the opportunistic nature of L.lutra with predation taking place based on both prey abundance and by means of chance encounters (Cousins et al, 2011). Among the avian species consumed by L.lutra water birds are the most frequently consumed in keeping with the shared habitat requirements of both predator and prey. Among these species, Ralliformes and Anseriformes predominate (Cousins et al, 2011; Chanin, 1981) though Columbiformes (Cousins et al, 2011), Passeriformes (Chanin, 1981) and Suliformes (De La Hey, 2005) have all been noted.
Mammals factor minimally in the diet of L.lutra and are generally thought of as insignificant when compared to more widely predated prey groups such as fish and amphibians (Jenkins et al, 1979; Carss, 1995). The available literature supports this assumption with mammalian species comprising only a fraction of otter diet across the Palearctic zone; a fact highlighted by low rates of occurrence in Poland (Krawczyk et al, 2010), England (Cousins et al, 2011) and Italy (Arca and Prigioni, 1987) among others (Britton et al, 2006; Remonti et al, 2007; Jedrzejewska et al, 2001). Though seemingly of little importance mammalian species are however a regular feature in otter diet occurring to a small degree in the majority of studies with the exception of Lanszki et al (2010) in their study of a Hungarian otter population. The regular occurrence of mammals throughout the literature further portrays the otter as an opportunist with the ability to exploit a prey source where abundant or when chance encounters make predation possible. Otters show little preference for individual mammal species, apparent from the wide range of species consumed throughout the Palearctic zone. Of these, rabbits and smaller species are most frequently observed, likely due to their abundance in the wider ecosystem (Britton et al, 2006; Remonti et al, 2007; Cousins et al,2011). It should be noted however, that otters have been known to prey on larger animals, most notably lambs (Harris, 1986) and hare (Conroy & Calder, 2000), though some incidences of otters consuming large mammalian prey are undoubtedly the result of carrion consumption such was the case with Lanszki et al (2001).
Further Reading
Almeida, D., Copp, G. H., Masson, L., Mir, A, R., Murai, M. and Sayer, C. D. 2012. Changes in the diet of a recovering Eurasian otter population between the 1970s and 2010. Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems, 22 (1), pp. 26–35.
Arca, G. and Prigioni, C. 1987. Food of the otter on the Fiora River(central Italy). Acta Theriologica, 32 (10), pp. 134–140.
Britton, J. R., Pegg, J., Sheperd, J. S. and Toms, S. 2006. Revealing the Prey Items of the otter Lutra lutra in South West England Using Stomach Content Analysis. Folia Zoology, 55 (2), p. 167–174.
Chanin, P. and Jefferies, D. 1978. The decline of the otter Lutra lutra L. in Britain: an analysis of hunting records and discussion of causes. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 10 (3), pp. 305–328.
Cousins, L., Tansley, D. and Hepburn, L. 2011. Investigation into the Dietary Habits of the Eurasian Otter (Lutra lutra) in the Country of Essex. UCN Otter Spec. Group Bul, 28 (2), pp. 76-82.
Of all the wildflowers I enjoyed as a child, Himalayan Balsam is one of the most memorable. Mainly because, in my youth, popping the little green grenades produced by the plant when it goes to seed, was once the most exciting feature of my woodland walks in late summer, when the pods come to fruition. Popping the pods and watching the small, brown seeds rain like confetti, ever entertaining. Even now, knowing fine well the havoc brought about by the species, balsam has a certain appeal. It’s subtle, orchid pink flowers equally as beautiful as any of our native blooms and the sickly sweet smell emitted by the plant, particularly on rainy days, always welcome. As is the sight of bumblebees and wasps, stained white by the plants pollen, frantically buzzing between the ample blooms in the summertime..
This said, while I do somewhat admire Balsam, both for its beautiful and its sheer tenacity, it has quickly become one of our most maligned invasive species. Holding an undisputed place in the inglorious triumvirate of our most problematic plants – the other two places going to Japanese Knotweed and the monstrous Giant Hogweed. The sight of Balsam, along our waterways and in our woods, is not unusual. Indeed, my local woodland is positively bursting with it. Something which, recently, caused me to look a little further into the plants history and the problems caused by it in the British ecosystem. The results of which can be found below.
Origins
Himalayan Balsam, or Impatiens glandulifera, to use its scientific name is a large, annual plant species native to, as its name suggests, the Himalayan mountains of East Asia. Growing alongside the colossal peaks and quaint streams of Nepal, Myanmar and other nearby nations.
The story of balsam in the UK is an all too familiar tale, brought to our shores in 1839 to adorn the gardens of the aristocracy. Many of whom, during the Victorian era were in the midst of a “wild gardening” phase. Something which lead the green-fingered elite to embellish woodlands with exotic blooms capable of not just withstanding the British climate, but spreading to form large, ornamental stands. A process which lead to the widespread planting of many species that we view as detrimental today and perhaps best described by William Robinson, author of ‘The Wild Garden‘ who writes: “the principle of wild gardening was naturalizing or making wild innumerable beautiful natives of many regions of the earth in our woods, wild and semi-wild places, rougher parts of pleasure grounds, etc“
These initial introductions were undoubtedly responsibly for the spread of balsam into the British ecosystem, something which had already taken place by 1855. A mere fifteen years after its initial introduction. This widespread, ornamental, planting of balsam continued well into the 1900’s though as the decades advanced, I.glandulifera began to appeal to more than just those possessing grandiose gardens. Due to the speed at which it grows, and its tendency to exist in large thickets, balsam soon became a favourite of everyday gardeners also. Mainly used to cover large areas of exposed ground – the plant itself undeterred by poor soil, rubble or pollution – and, according to some sources, also as a means of replicating the vibrant gardens of the elite. With a single balsam seed enough to produce some 1000 plants in a mere five years. Indeed, by 1909 the species was a firm favourite in country gardens. A trend which continued up to the modern day with balsam still being purposefully distributed until the late 1990’s (and probably later). The accounts below, taken from the paper shown at the end of this article, standing testament to this:
In the early 1990s, Mrs Gubbin of Reading collected seed from a friend’s garden, introduced it to her own garden, and from there spread it to other gardens and to local hedgerows. She considers it very useful for filling in empty spaces and providing background for planting.
Mrs Holms of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, in the 1990s collected seeds from her son’s garden in Snettisham in Norfolk, for her cottage garden at Belsay in Newcastle. ‘Now I am gradually furnishing all the gardens in the village with these plants for the seed fly everywhere.’
Mrs Guych of Birmingham recalls balsam in their garden c. 2 miles from the centre of Birmingham in 1917. In the late 1950s she took it to a garden in Ledbury (Herefordshire). She also transferred it in the 1990s, from the River Trothy in Monmouthshire, to a garden in Solihull.
In the 1990s Mrs Edwards of St. Albans received one plant for her garden from a neighbour, apparently from seed from St Lucia, and has since sent it to Redbourn, to Essex, and to Luton.
The Problem
The posed by balsam in the UK centers on how quick the species spreads, the very reason it became popular with Victorian gardeners in the first place. As I have said, balsam seeds spread when the pods in which they are held explode, a process known by some as “ballistic dispersal“. This allows the seeds of the plant to spread up to four meters from their original location and can quickly lead to stands of balsam engulfing whole areas of the landscape. Also, due to the tendency of balsam to grow near water, the seeds often find themselves carried many miles downstream of their original location. The seeds themselves remaining viable for up to two years, meaning they can travel great distances before making landfall and growing anew.
The explosive nature of balsam is however, only half of the story. Where the species takes root it can have serious implications for the ecology of that area – mainly through direct competition with native ground flora. Competition which balsam, due to the speed at which it grows, often wins. Quickly forming a dense canopy which shades out and smothers other plant species. On top of this, it would appear that many native pollinators actively favour balsam over native species, further reducing the ability of other plants to seed and therefore, spread. Finally, as an annual, balsam is subject to die backs in winter and where it the only species in residence – as is often the case due to matters mentioned previously – can leave river banks bare during this period. Thus making them liable to erosion, particularly during floods.
Can balsam be controlled? Well, yes, though the methods currently being deployed against the species appear inadequate at best. An assumption based on the continued spread of the species across Britain. Among these methods, pulling is often preferred. A process which involves pulling out the plants – which are shallow-rooted and thus easily removed – early in the year, before they have the chance to flower. Something which has been shown to destroy stands of balsam within 2-3 years. Elsewhere, strimming is also an option, though it must be undertaken regularly, before the plant has flowered. By far the most effective means of controlling balsam however appears to be chemical control, with both spraying and injection often used. Though the latter is both costly and time consuming and the former, coupled with the close vicinity of water bodies, often comes with pollution risks.
Source Material and Further Reading: Himalayan balsam – the human touch. Ian D. Rotherham (2000)
With little time to blog about my Scotland experience so far this year I thought I would let my pictures do the talking, for once. Below is only a small selection of the natural wonders observed so far this season, omitting many other special sights: Hen Harrier, Merlin, Golden Eagle and the like, all of which have been plentiful so far this summer. I am not a photographer, not by a long shot, but stand quite pleased with some of them.
There really is no place like home. Having arrived back for some much needed TLC following two months surveying in the Highlands, this week I set about reacquainting myself with the local patch. My how things have changed since I departed at the back-end of Spring.
The Blyth is certainly in bloom at present, the meadows (verges left to grow wild by the local council) alive with resplendent purple and radiant yellow. The blooms of Black Knapweed, Yellow Rattle, Trefoil and Common Spotted Orchid too numerous to count. Elsewhere the areas of waste-ground are looking similarly kaleidoscopic, Biting Stonecrop and Viper’s Bugloss two of the more impressive finds over the last few days. The towering, sapphire blue blooms of the latter providing a real draw to bumblebees with no less than six species noted today alone. Elsewhere, the wood has begun to resemble somewhat of a tropical rainforest, overgrown and very, very green. Bramble, Balsam and some truly colossal Butterbur leaves rendering some areas totally impassable. Perhaps I should invest in a machete?
(From the top) Dog Rose, Yellow Rattle, Common Spotted Orchid & Viper’s Bugloss
The various leafy areas of the patch have, of course, proven irresistible to insects, with butterflies a particular delight this week. Ringlet and Meadow Brown two of the more common species but augmented, in some places, by a healthy dose of Speckled Wood, Green-Veined White, Common Blue and Large Skipper – a real favourite of mine with their vibrant orange/gold wings and short energetic flights. As ever though, it has been the birds that have enthralled the most and, at present, the Blyth and her surroundings are positively bursting with avian life.
Each bush it seems now plays host to fledged young of some description: juvenile Blue Tits with their delightful yellow tinge, immature Stonechats, Robins, Wrens and thrushes. Warblers too are numerous at present, with the area brimming with newly liberated Chiffchaffs. Most of the adult warblers are now singing again, hoping to attract a mate and raise a second brood. Of these, a handful of Grasshopper Warblers reeling from the riverside scrub were perhaps most exciting, with the exception of the years first Reed Warbler emitting its characteristic scratchy chords from the outflow pools. Add to them a plethora of amorous Willow Warbler, Sedge Warbler, Blackcap, Whitethroat and Chiff and you have the makings of a true summer spectacular. Only Garden Warbler continues to elude me..
Speckled Wood, Ringlet and Cheilosia illustrata
Down on the estuary – where I spend most of my time – wader passage has started again, though with more of a fizzle than a bang. A smart looking Greenshank has been in residence for the last few days, feeding on the flats and then retiring to roost alongside the fifty or so Redshank already back. Likewise, each day this week has provided sightings of Whimbrel and a nice mixed flock of Dunlin and Ringed Plover is already accumulating. Presumably, most of these will be failed breeders, returning early after having their nests pilfered by a predator on their breeding sights. Though not in all cases it seems, a juvenile Ringed Plover observed yesterday – its washed out sandy hue contrasting nicely with the more vibrant shades of the adults surrounding it. Elsewhere eleven Turnstone were noted, some of which clad in their ruddy summer finery and three Black-Tailed Godwit were seen. Alongside, of course, an ample supply of Curlew and Lapwing. One only hopes that upon my return in August, something a little scarcer may be found..
The waterfowl of the Blyth, are looking a tad less impressive at present – befitting the summer season when most ducks enter their gloomy eclipse phase. Eider are back in force, some females boasting small broods of wonderfully fluffy ducklings, a trend apparent in the Mallards and Shelducks too. Seventeen Goosander have now built up in the estuary, fishing amid the broken piers of Blyth Harbour most days while elsewhere other aquatic bits and pieces include Teal, Gadwall, a record count of six Canada Goose (unusual, I know) and the odd Mute Swan. Though this does not take into consideration all of the goodies seen on the sea of late. The highlight comprising a single Manx Shearwater heading North yesterday. Closer to shore a feeding frenzy of Gannets was nice to see while a mixed bag of Arctic, Common and Sandwhich Tern, Guillemot, Common Scoter and Shag soon resulted in me losing track of time and spending hours rooted in the sand dunes.
What else? Well a short walk down the road on Monday yielded a welcome touch rarity in the form of the long-staying Bonaparte’s Gull on the Wansbeck Estuary. A new species for me and an educational one if that – half way in between a Black-Headed Gull and a Little. Closer to home, a few hours spent roaming the reaches of the wood produced all the typical characters: Nuthatches transporting food to their nest hole, fledged Treecreepers (another first for me), drumming Great Spotted Woodpeckers and a Buzzard. The latter traversing a branch with what looked to be a vole clasped in its talons. Feeding young perhaps? I have suspected that they breed here for a few years now but have always failed to turn up definitive proof. Perhaps that is best. Elsewhere the Dipper pair continue to feed their ever growing chicks and a particularly confiding Grey Wagtail left me grinning like a Cheshire cat. Lovely birds.
Oh, I forgot to mention a brief glimpse of a Harbour Porpoise on Tuesday..
This will no doubt be the last patch update for a while, duty calls and come Tuesday I will be back off to the uplands. Hopefully to enjoy more tantalising encounters like those shown below, all taken during my ventures over the past few weeks.
Ben Eagle knocks the ball out of the park once again with yet another fantastic post. This time reflecting on community and environmental change. As someone who has only just started to look into the history (as well as the natural history) of my favourite places, this definitely struck a chord with me. Give it a read!
I have spent the last few days back on my home patch, in north Essex, doing a whistle stop tour of visits to see family and friends before I return to the west country later today. I’m not often one to get homesick but when you return to the place where you grew up something […]
Orchids hold a fascination for many people around the world. For me that began when a Common Spotted Orchid (Dactylorhiza fuchsii) popped up in an unmown area of my parents’ lawn one summer when I was a child. They slowly spread and it became a game each summer to see how many there were flowering alongside the Knapweed in the long grass. Last year there were over thirty.
As I’ve grown, my passion for wildlife has grown too and my love of wildflowers has intensified. I am lucky now to have travelled to some wonderful locations and seen some incredible wild Orchid species. As the Green Winged Orchids (Anacamptis morio) are in full bloom in a local meadow I thought I’d share a few of my favourites and my experiences finding them.
Common Spotted Orchid & Green-Winged Orchid
For many, Orchids can be a confusing group of flowers to study and it is true that they seem to hybridise readily which doesn’t always help with identification. With a little perseverance and a keen eye though, it soon becomes apparent that there are certain characteristics to look out for which will give a definitive answer. The next challenge is where to find them in the first place.
In the French Alps if you want to know where you might find Orchids, ask a local – it seems like almost everybody knows where to find some and they are proud of it too. This is particularly true of some of the bigger, blousier species like the glorious Lady’s Slipper Orchid (Cypripedium calceolus). By contrast, in Britain, it was collected nearly to the point of extinction and now clings on at only one closely guarded site.
I will never forget the first time I saw these spectacular flowers as a teenager on holiday with my parents in Austria, my mother suddenly asked that we stop the car on a quiet country road because she thought she’d seen some and sure enough in the dappled shade there was a clump set back from the road a few meters under the trees. Her knack of spotting unusual flowers from a moving car is incredible and my husband claims I’ve inherited the trait, as I too often ask him to stop in strange places so I can jump out and look at things!
For me one of the appeals is the common names of the Orchids – there are Lady, Man, Military, Frog, Monkey, Bee, Woodcock, Butterfly and Fly Orchids fro name a few. They are often reflective of the individual flower shape or colouring and are somehow quite charming. The Monkey Orchid (Orchis simia) is one of my many favourites with beautiful bright colouring and a very monkey-like shape complete with tail.
Some names are less imaginative but very descriptive such as the Pyramidal Orchid (Anacamptis pyramidalis) named for the shape of the flower spike, or the Burnt Tip Orchid (Neotinea ustulata) which has dark purple flower buds that open from the bottom up into white speckled flowers, and give the impression that the tip of the flower spike is blackened.
There is a sense of the exotic in many species of Orchid, we are of course all familiar with the brightly coloured potted versions available from supermarkets and garden centres but we don’t expect to find anything quite so striking in the wild. I haven’t had the opportunity to visit a jungle habitat to see any really large orchid species (yet!) but I was pleasantly surprised that there are some European species which are not a million miles from those aforementioned shop-bought varieties. Of course the Lady’s Slipper falls into this category but there are others too. The Violet Bird’s Nest Orchid (Limodorum abortivum) of the Alps, and the Eastern Marsh Helleborine (Epipactis veratrifolia) found in Cyprus despite being more common in Asia, are both contenders.
Bird’s Nest Orchid, Lady’s Slipper Orchid and Mirror Orchid.
The most recent orchids I’ve added to my list were in Sardinia where my favourite was the Mirror Orchid (Ophrys speculum). It was quite different from a lot of the other species I had found in the past and illustrates my continual astonishment at just how diverse Orchids are from those which are parasitic and lack chlorophyll such as the Bird’s Nest Orchid (Neottia nidus-avis), to the Fragrant Orchid (Gymnadenia conopsea) which lives up to its name and grows in great swathes where the habitat is suitable. Sometimes even that first species to take my interest surprises me, such as the time I came across a rare variant, Dactylorhiza fuchsii var. rhodochila.
Despite all of my wonder and excitement at finding, photographing and identifying Orchids, there is one major factor that I alluded to earlier which I simply don’t understand: Seemingly in Britain in particular, Orchids continue to be sought for collections to the point of detriment. It is such a shame that these beautiful flowers seem to be at greater risk on home shores than abroad despite the efforts of charities like the Wildlife Trusts and Plantlife. I can only wonder whether I will be able to pass on my love of Orchids to my children in the future as my mother did to me, or whether I will have to settle for telling stories of the days when they grew in the lawn.
Another intriguing post by Ben Eagle looking at rewilding in the often forgotten lowlands. Places over overlooked during talk of sprawling pine forests, prowling wolf packs and “unpleasant” grouse moors. Give it a read!
The rewilding fraternity seems to have gathered its main focus thus far around making a case for upland landscapes as the most likely or suitable hosts for rewilding projects. The more productive and urbanised lowlands feature less in the debate. One could say that there are many logical economic and ecological reasons for this. Nonetheless, […]
Recently the Eagle Owl was cast into the spotlight once again, notable sportsman Sir Ian Botham using the species as the basis for a scathing attack on the RSPB. In his article, published in the Daily Mail and found here, Botham accuses the RSPB of wanting to “nip the ongoing colonisation of Eagle Owls in the bud” and goes as far as to accuse conservationists of deliberately disturbing nesting owls. These accusations have been dismissed by the RSPB, who stress that at present, no action is being taken against the species. Instead the RSPB highlight the need to monitor the ongoing spread of B.bubo with regards to the potential implications associated with the presence of the species in Britain – not ruling out future action should problems emerge. All of this, whether based in fact or fiction has once again hurled Bubo bubo into the limelight. Many, it seems, are unable to decide whether the species is in fact a natural figment of the British landscape, an acceptable non-native on par with the much smaller Little Owl or indeed, a damaging invasive species worthy of control measures.
it is the opinion of some, that the Eagle Owls currently dwelling in the UK are decedent entirely from domestic stock (RSPB, 2016). The species has been kept commonly in captivity since the 17th century and remains a popular choice of pet for many, including non-falconers, due to the fact no formal license is required to own one. When selling an Eagle Owl, a certificate is however required; such certificates can be used to give an insight into how many owls are kept in the UK. In the ten years leading up to 2007, over three thousand such certificates were issued though this only represents birds sold to new owners and it is estimated that many more are kept nationwide (RSPB, 2016). With so many owls kept as pets, it is inevitable that some will find their way into the wild – whether through deliberate releases or accidental escapes. Indeed, the RSPB estimate that as many as 65 owls could escape into the wild each year. Many of these likely to survive due to the owls broad diet and adaptation to our climate. Both the RSPB and British Ornithologists Union (BOU) hold the opinion that the Eagle Owl residing in Britain at present are non-native.
Whereas many of Britain’s Eagle Owls almost certainly stem from domestic escapes, there are those who argue that the species has occurred naturally in the UK – contrary to the claims of the RSPB and British ornithologists Union (BOU). Among these, the World Owl Trust have proven vocal on the matter. Citing records from Orkney (1830), Shetland (1863, 1871) and Argyll (1883) and highlighting the continued expansion of the species in mainland Europe, the trust suggest that there is no reason that at
least some of the Eagle Owls currently inhabiting Britain could have occurred naturally. The World Owl Trust also highlight a wealth of data that appears to suggest wild Eagle Owls have existed (and still exist) in the UK. Among this; perhaps the most persuasive argument put forth is the presence of B.bubo in the fossil record – something which suggests that the Eagle Owl did indeed inhabit the UK before eventually succumbing to extinction. In a 2007 study published in British Birds, John Stewart concluded, following a review of the archaeological records, that “Eagle Owls form a natural part of Britain’s fauna”. This paper is freely available online.
The World Owl Trust also put forth other evidence to suggest that B.bubo is in fact native to the British Isles, the following appearing to lend credence to this theory:
* The occurrence of three birds in Donegal, Ireland following a a sevre northeasterly weather front.
* The account of R, Bowdler Sharpe of the Zoological Department of the British Museum, suggesting that wild birds have been previously shot on Orkney and Shetland – where the likelihood of escapes occurring is severely diminished.
* The recording of this species as a “rare vagrant” by numerous sources including Bernard Tucker, author of ‘the handbook of British Birds’, as well as T.A Coward and Charles St. John.
* The conclusion of the authors of the renowned Collin’s Bird Guide that “a handful of genuine records have occurred in Britain, all in the 19th Century”
* Reliable sightings (and photographic evidence) of Eagle Owls resting on North Sea oil platforms
All in all, the World Owl Trust provide a veritable smorgasbord of information suggesting that the Eagle Owl is in fact a native British species, all of which can be found here:
The debate surrounding the Eagle Owl in Britain is a very interesting one. Personally I find myself agreeing with the stance of John Stewart and those at the World Owl Trust – I believe that Eagle Owls have and indeed, still do occur wild in Britain. Until a ringed bird is recovered however or a bird is actually caught in the act of migrating, the debate will rage on. The RSPB and other parties are right to monitor the situation, though I, like many other birders, welcome the addition of the Eagle Owl to the British List and look forward to, some day, viewing these imposing predators wild in the UK. Something which may never happen if action is taken to halt the further spread of the species, though only time will tell if such action is ever deemed necessary.
Spring is well and truly here and the the last few days have been nothing short of glorious. Invertebrates emerging from hibernation, migrant birds fresh from Africa and a surplus of beautiful wildflowers bursting into bloom – the tedium of winter has been well and truly banished it seems. Of the plentiful wildflowers on show, it has been the yellow ones that are most apparent – Gorse, Broom, Dandelion, Colts-Foot, Lesser Celandine and, of course, Daffodils providing a true feast for my winter-weary eyes. Not to mention the first Ramsons and Bluebell blooms of the season.
My time this week has been split equally between the three habitat types that make up my humble Northumbrian patch; the Blyth Estuary, the dune system between Blyth and Cambois and the cracking stand of deciduous woodland that is Ha’Penny Woods Local Nature Reserve. There has been an awful lot to see here of late so I thought I best jump right into it with a not so brief summary of this weeks antics. I apologise in advance for the prolonged bird-based waffling..
Starting out at the coast and things have proven rather lively of late – each trip accompanied by a light passage of hirundines heading North with some haste. Sand Martins have been most numerous, a good dozen passing by and a further ten now back at a favoured nest side. With these perhaps a dozen Swallows and four House Martins, my first of the year. Wheatear seem to have tailed off after their initial arrival though Meadow Pipit and Skylark remain numerous and a good c40 Linnet have now materalised, seemingly from nowhere. Elsewhere here three pairs of Stonechat added a welcome touch of glamour, a Mistle Thrush foraged amid the wrack – weird right – and a walk around the adjacent scrubby areas provided a hearty mix of common passerines; Bullfinch, Long-Tailed Tit and four Song Thrush perhaps the most noteworthy. A Water Rail here came as somewhat of a surprise however; this individual struggling with a rather large food item which later turned out to be a newt! That is certainly a first and, despite the untimely demise of said newt, was quite interesting to see.
Of course, while visiting the coastal expanses of the patch it would have been rude not to put in a few hours seawatching. Two stints on my favoured dune this last week turning up a decent array of maritime species. The best of these was certainly the returning Sandwich Terns; a count of twelve birds today my highest of the year so far. Gannets continue to feature, as of course do Eider while the two Red-Throated Divers still lurking offshore have now morphed into their impressive summer garb – red throat and all. Other highlights here of late include Common Scoter, Guillemot, Kittiwake, Fulmar, Razorbill and Red-Breasted Merganser while today found me squinting to get better views of a very distant group of Skuas heading north in earnest. Probably Arctic but I will never know. Better still, today found White-Fronted Goose added to my every growing ‘patch list’. A small flock of five birds passing high over head as I packed up to leave – marking my latest record of this species in the UK to date! I honest wouldn’t have been able to identify them if it wasn’t for their unmistakable barring illuminated nicely by the early morning sun. Not a bird I expected to catch up with in late April.
Moving on to the Blyth estuary and the theme of returning migrants continued here also. Two Whimbrel were noted on two occasions – one of which posed for a rather dreadful ‘record shot’ that can be seen above. A pair of Common Sandpiper were likewise new for the year while the surrounding scrub is now bursting with the song of both Willow Warbler and Chiffchaff. Hirundines featured here also, as did two Avocet while a few Black-Tailed Godwit remain, looking undeniably handsome in their rustic summer plumage. Visitors aside; the pickings have been far from slim on the Blyth. The harbour area continues to hold a few Guillemot and Red-Breasted Merganser, as well as a great deal of courting Eider while elsewhere a quick tally of the more regular waders revealed; 72 Redshank, 32 Turnstone, 20 Curlew, 26 Oystercatcher and a lone Lapwing. Wildfowl wise, Shelduck remain the only numerous species – some 70+ still in attendance. A few Gadwall, Mallard and Teal comprising the ‘best of the rest’ so to speak.
Upstream towards Ha’penny woods things remain similarly lively. Blackcap have arrived back on cue – six males noted on my last venture. Their scratchy call a welcome addition to the choir of woodland birds now in full song. Willow Warbler and Chiffchaff proved numerous here also while elsewhere a quiet hour perched amid the sites vast swathes of ‘Wild Garlic’ produced nice views of Jay, Goldcrest, Great Spotted Woodpecker, Nuthatch and the usual medley of tits and finches. Combing the inland reaches of the River Blyth failed to produce my long awaited Kingfisher though two of each Grey Wagtail and Dipper were graciously received.
Of course birds are not the only thing on offer around Blyth and as usual my attentions have wandered to other species. A snoozing Roe Deer proved enjoyable, as did a the surplus of Rabbits that seem to have reappeared of late. With these, a nice mix of Small Tortoiseshell and Peacock butterflies and at least four species of bumblebee. These however conclude this weeks offerings…
The woeful demise of the Scottish Wildcat (F. s. silvestris) is arguably one of the most pressing conservation concerns facing the UK at present. Indeed, now Britain’s most endangered mammal species, the wildcat now sits on the edge of an abyss – habitat loss, persecution and more importantly, interbreeding with introduced feral cats ( Felis silvestris catus) pushing the iconic highland denizen to the brink of extinction. It should come as consolation that in recent times the species has been subject to a high profile media campaign highlighting its plight and now is the focus of huge push to restore numbers. A push brought about by both Scottish Wildcat Action (SWA), the official body governing wildcat conservation, and Wildcat Haven – an independent group working towards the preservation of this much loved species.
With so many people working to reverse the decline of the wildcat it may seem that things are looking up for the feline though this week conservation efforts found themselves hampered by infighting between the two groups. Infighting stemming from a fundamental disagreement on how best to deal with feral cats – the single biggest threat to Scotland’s remaining wildcats. The latest bout of distrust emerging after it was revealed that SWA have authorised the “humane dispatch” of feral cats trapped as part of the project – a move Wildcat Haven have branded as “barbaric and entirely unnecessary“.
It has long been known that Wildcat Haven stand virulently opposed to the killing of feral cats. The reasons for this centering on a number of factors but not least compassionate grounds and the risk that peoples pets could be mistakenly destroyed. WH state that lethal control measures pose a direct threat to wildcats that could be mistakenly killed in place of their feral counterparts and believe such measures may in fact not be beneficial to conservation measures on the whole – citing Australian research (found here) that concludes that killing feral cats simply encourages more to colonise the area in question. They believe that in order for lethal measures to succeed, the whole population of feral cats must be eradicated – admittedly, an unlikely prospect given the 1000/1 ration of feral cats to wildcats in Scotland. Instead the group, funded by various overseas sources, champion a trap/neuter/return (TNR) approach.
This opposition this week lead Wildcat Haven to call for the “suspension and a detailed review of the Scottish Wildcat Action Plan” – a move that Wildcat Action, backed numerous professional bodies (a list of which I will include below) to accuse WH of “misrepresenting the progress made in wildcat conservation“. Eileen Stuart, head of policy and advice at Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) later called up wildcat haven to produce evidence of their activities in order to ensure the two parties can work together in the future.
Disputing the claims of wildcat haven whom claim feral cats are trapped simply to be “blasted in the face with a shotgun” WA state that, contrary to the claims of wildcat haven, all trapped feral cats are humanely euthanised by their veterinary team – after being rigorously tested to determine their credentials. They state that such moves are in fact a lot safer than previous means of cat control such as nocturnal shooting which could lead to the inadvertent death of pure wildcats.Wildcat action have also made moves to return feral cats to their original location, though often landowners refuse to accept hybrid or domestic cats back on their land, leaving no option but to destroy them.
Surely I cannot be the only conservationist out there feeling a little, frustrated shall we say, at the current war of words raging between the two sides. Though undoubtedly full of good intent, wildcat haven by calling for a cessation to the current wildcat action plan appear to be directly opposing conservation measures aimed to protect the species they claim to adore and why? Because of the deaths of a feral cats – a nonnative species that has no place in the British ecosystem. There may well be truth in the notion that killing feral cats simply encourages more into the target area – the same thing happens with foxes, a wealth of available resources proving too good to turn down.What choice is there however when landowners refuse to take feral cats back onto their property. Why would they? These are, after all, an invasive species that is going to hunt and kill various native critters thus putting further strain on an already embattled ecosystem. Personally I am not opposed to destroying cats once all necessary steps to return them have been rebuffed. This is not born of a dislike for the feisty felines (I own cats) but out of realism and an understanding that Wildcat Action are doing what must be done.
I sincerely hope that the two sides can set their differences aside soon and work together towards a common cause – the preservation of one of our islands most iconic predators. Should this prove impossible then maybe Wildcat Action should evaluate their ties to the opposing group. Oh and in case you were doubting the credentials of Wildcat Action the full list of those supporting the scheme can be found below:
“Scottish Natural Heritage, the Royal Zoological Society of Scotland, National Museums Scotland, Edinburgh University’s Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, the Cairngorms National Park Authority, the National Trust for Scotland, Forestry Commission Scotland, the Scottish Gamekeepers’ Association, and the Scottish Wildlife Trust“
It’s been a while since my fabulous trip to Extremadura courtesy of the great people at the Spanish Tourist Board. Only now did I realise that I left off half way through my exploits. Well, here it goes, a breif(ish) summary of part two.
When I concluded the last post I had just finished a a trip to the wonderful Extremadura bird fair. Well, following a great day here we set off for another location in Monfragüe National Park, this time with the intent of catching up with a true Iberian icon – the Spanish Imperial Eagle. Arriving at the Portilla del Tiétar things, at first, did not appear overly promising, the hoped for eagles nowhere in sight. This was of little consequence however with more than enough species on show to keep us entertained, among these a superb Blue Rock Thursh, a number of Griffon Vultures and, of course, heaps of Serin. As the time ticked by, the likelihood of catching up with the imposing raptors diminished though mere moments before we boarded the bus to depart an excited yell heralded the arrival of our target species. A stonking male Spanish Imperial Eagle which performed admirably for a good quarter of an hour, much to our delight. Said bird can be seen in the not so good image below. From here, and hoping to prolong our avian-centric high, another trip to the Salto del Gitano where Black Stork, Blue Rock Thrush, Black Vulture and Sardinian Warbler brought the day to a close with a welcome touch of glamour.
The next day found us venturing into another habitat entirely, the vast plains of Santa Marta de Magasca – an area unlike anywhere I have had the pleasure to visit previously, vast expanses of grassland rife with wildflowers making for a truly splendid day. Each and every stop here produced something new and exciting; Calandra Lark belting out song all day long and both Red and Black Kite proving more than abundant. The first highlight here came in the form of nice scope views of a flock of Great Bustard – their hulking frames easily picked out when scanning the surrounding hillsides. Next, not one but two fantastic Short-Toed Eagle followed by a flock of 20-30 Pin-Tailed Sandgrouse. The latter one of my personal “most sought after species” of the trip. Proceeding this, a pair of Black-Bellied Sandgrouse were expertly picked out by Godfried our guide, great views obtained as they foraged not overly far from the track. Next came Zitting Cristcola, hoards of Corn Bunting and three wonderful Lesser Kestrel which flaunted themselves for a good while by the roadside. Much daintier and arguably, more appealing than their larger cousins.
Before heading off to the picturesque surroundings of Merida, a finally stop on the plains yielded another surprise. A Great Spotted Cuckoo which lifted from the grass before me as I unceremoniously tried to find a secluded spot to relieve myself. Definitely a new addition to my “birding while peeing” list! Also here a smart pair of Spanish Sparrow fed nearby – another new bird for the trip and a Hoopoe was noted. These, alongside yet more Zitting Cristcola, Calandra Lark, Raven, Lesser Kestrel and another Short-Toed Eagle made the final pittstop a thoroughly enjoyable one. Onward to Merida..
Rendezvousing with the second group on the historic (and quite frankly, beautiful) roman bridge in Merida we now set about birding in a new, wetland setting. Though I missed Penduline Tit here the river held more than enough to mitigate my losses. First came an Osprey, passing directly overhead – no doubt on route back from its wintering quarters in Africa. Next, Purple Swamphen, two of which showed well beneath the bridge in the company of some much more familiar critters; Moorhen, Little Egret, Muscovy Duck and their like. Pottering further along the bridge, a Glossy Ibis was picked up feeding in the shallows perhaps a quarter of a mile up stream. This, of course, warranted further investigation thus off we went, aiming to get just a little closer to the bird.
Walking along the bank towards the Ibis, another Purple Swamphen proved enjoyable as did the addition of Great Crested Grebe to the proceedings though the real surprise came when a Little Bittern lifted out of the reeds a mere meter or so from where we stood on the bank. Wow – of course this was another “lifer” but what really stuck me was the sheer beauty of the bird itself. Definitely one of my all time favorites and perhaps the highlight of the whole trip, made even better by the constant singing of Cetti’s Warblers and good views of the Glossy Ibis – when we finally got there.
White Stork
Following a day of urban birding in Zafra where Lesser Kestrel, Pallid Swift, Black Redstart and Blue Rock Thursh delighted – our next major outing found us heading for Alange. Our first stop here leaving me wrought with excitement; catching up with yet another sought after target – Eagle Owl. The bird in question showing reasonable well as it watched us from an outcrop not far from the town. Nearby, a colony of Alpine Swifts proved equally as delightful while Little Bittern, Bonelli’s Eagle and Black Wheatear comprised the other highlights. Later that day a brief stop at Alcollarín Reservoir yielded a drake Ferruginous Duck in the company of a good number of more common duck species alongside White Stork, Cattle Egret, Sardinian Warbler, Great White Egret and a pair of Egyptian Geese – they really are everywhere!
Concluding the trip in style, our journey back to Madrid was broken up somewhat with a fantastic stop at the Arrocampo Reservoir – perhaps the most productive hour of the whole trip! Here things started off well, Hoopoe, Iberian Grey Shrike, Crested Lark and Wheatear cropping up immediately after vacating the bus. Things soon got better however as we made our way to the wetlands and were straight away greeted by a rather nice Bluethroat. Not a male but a new bird for this novice nonetheless. Four Snipe were also seen here, as was a Black-Winged Stilt and more interesting, a Black-Winged Kite patrolling the distant margin. From here we set out for the hide, catching only the briefest glimpse of a likely Spotted Crake on route and enjoying the frantic squeals of innumerable Water Rail. The hide was marvelous, Spoonbill and Great White Egret noted upon arrival and after a short wait, a pair of Purple Heron – both of which landed only a few meters away. Heading back, a pair of Garganey showed well alongside yet another Little Bittern and two more Purple Swamphen. Not a bad stop eh?
So, that’s that. A relatively brief summary of the fantastic second half of our Extremadura venture. All in all the trip was sublime; great birds, wonderful company and outstanding food, what more can a boy want? I would advise anyone to visit. Those wishing to do so can contact the Spanish Tourist Office for more details using the link below. Thank you all involved in organizing what was, in truth, the greatest birding trip I’ve had the pleasure to embark on to date.
Wish to visit Extremadura? Contact the Spanish Tourist Office and visitspain.info
Living where I do, secluded in a reasonably rural area of Northumberland, Grey Partridge (Perdix perdix) are still, thankfully, rather abundant. Indeed, many an evening stroll is accompanied by the guttural croaks of amorous male partridge and any venture into nearby farmland carries the risk of a mini-heart attack, induced by erupting covey’s vacating their grassy abodes. Up here in the North, you would be forgiven for assuming that this species is actually doing rather well – they are certainly easy enough to come by, all be it with a little effort. The fact of the matter remains however that the Grey Partridge, once one of our commonest and most widespread game birds, has declined massively. The history of this charismatic farmland denizen an overtly solemn one and the future of this much loved species, still undecided.
Historic declines
The Grey Partridge was once the most widespread and heavily exploited game bird in the UK; its historic fondness for grassy steppe habitats allowing it to adapt readily to cultivated ecosystems. Indeed, during the 18th and 19th century, aided by an increase in arable farming, land enclosure and widespread predator control the partridge population expanded considerably. So much so that between 1870 and 1930, upwards of two million Grey Partridge were shot in the UK each year (Tapper, 1992). The latter representing a number that may, at first, sound unsustainable but one that had little impact on the overall population ofP.perdix at the time- a testament to the health of the UK population in the last century.
Like many farmland bird species, the Grey Partridge has not fared well in modern times (Tucker and Heath, 1994) – the population high prior to 1930 now, sadly, a thing of the past. This species has declined across the length and breadth of Europe, showing a decrease in population size ranging from 1% to 80% between 1990 and 2000 (Kuijper et al, 2009) with the UK showcasing one of the most pronounced downward trends. The decline of P.perdixappears to have taken place in three distinct stages; a stable period characterized by high hunting bags, often 100 partridge per square kilometer between 1793 and 1950 followed by a rapid decline between 1950 and 1970 (Kuijper et al, 2009). The latter made apparent by a sharp decrease in the size of hunting bags (Potts & Aebischer, 1995). The third and final stage, from 1970 until the present day, shows a slower, gradual decline in partridge numbers across much of the UK (Potts, 1986). For once, the reasons for this decline appear clear and much research has been carried out on the subject, some of which I will attempt to summarizes here.
The initial decline (1950-1970)
The initial population crash, the one that took place in the UK between 1950-70 has been largely attributed to a rapid decrease in chick survival rate (Kuijper et al, 2009) – something observed right across Europe during the first years of partridge decline (Potts, 1986). This apparent increase in mortality coincided with an increase in the use of pesticides to prevent agricultural crop damage, among these; herbicides, insecticides and fungicides. Whereas prior to 1950 only 7% of crops were sprayed in this manner, by 1965 more than 90% were exposed to pesticides (Potts, 1986) – coinciding perfectly with the drop in partridge numbers. Such chemicals may affect birds in a number of ways, firstly through direct poisoning of the partridge themselves though little evidence exists to support this theory and instead the indirect implications of pesticide use are thought to have played a bigger role (Kuijper et al, 2009). Such pesticides have been shown to directly affect adult partridge through the removal of preferred food sources, among these; chickweed and black bindweed, and the removal of insect prey on which partridge chicks depend. A number of studies, including those of Moreby et al (1994) and Taylor et al (2006) have found a direct link between pesticide use and chick food availability – supporting the conclusions of Potts (1986) and others. As it stands, pesticides and their associated impact on the food chain in farmland ecosystems may well be the driving factor behind the decline of the Grey Partridge in the UK.
Habitat loss is also cited as a major factor in the pre-1970 decline of Grey Partridge in the UK (Kuijper et al, 2009; Potts 1986). During these initial crashes, habitat quality in agricultural ecosystems began to deteriorate; hedgerows and unmanaged areas largely removed as farming practices intensified. This removed vital breeding habitat for Grey Partridge who depend on such cover for protection from predators (Rands, 1987). Of course, the removal of such habitats also removed yet another valuable food source and thus can be closely linked with previous talk of chick mortality. In short, the way we managed our farmland prior to 1970 was irafutably to blame for the decline of P.perdix. But what about post-1970?
The continued decline (1970-present)
Whereas pesticides and habitat alteration and the resulting decrease in chick survival rate were surely to blame for declines prior to 1970, studies have shown these are not responsible for the continued decline in modern times (Potts & Aebischer, 1995). Instead it is believe that a decline in nesting success is to blame for this sustained downward trend, increased predation to blame for a rise in both the mortality of incubating hens and the eggs themselves (Kuijper et al, 2009). This increase coinciding with a decrease in gamekeeping operations and thus, predator control since the 1970s (Potts, 1986) – the resurgence of corvids, mustelids and foxes likely limiting partridge breeding success in many areas. It therefore stands to reason that Grey Partridge do indeed benefit from gamekeeping operations and the subsequent predator control that takes place – something not to dissimilar to the situation with breeding waders on driven grouse shoots. One study in particular, conducted by Tapper et al (1996) showed a 3.5 fold increase in Partridge numbers on a site where predators where intensively managed – concluding that control of natural predators is a viable conservation tool alongside habitat restoration and reduced pesticide use.
Whereas the game shooting industry does have to potential to benefit P.perix it should be noted that shooting operations may also have factored into the decline of the species (Kuijper et al, 2009). The release of both Ring-Necked Pheasant and Red-Legged Partridge – now a very common practice – can be detrimental to partridge stocks (Tomkins et al, 2000). Pheasants and Grey Partridge share a common parasite, the caecal nematode, which while having little effect on pheasants has been shown to reduce the body condition of partridge -likely resulting in reduced breeding success (Tomkins et al, 2000). The continued release of these two species also leads to many wild Grey Partridge getting caught up in shooting drives and can lead to unsustainable levels of adult mortality (Watson et al, 2007). As a result of this, partridge declines have been more pronounced one estates that rear and release these species (Aebischer and Ewald, 2004). Finally, Leo et al (2004) concluded that shooting has in fact lead to the localized extinction of many Grey Partridge populations and threatens many more. It should be noted however, that banning the shooting of Grey Partridge could be counter productive and may not actually help halt the decline. The impacts of shooting and the benefits of predator control balancing each other out somewhat in certain locations (Watson et al, 2007).
Conclusion
The decline of the Grey Partridge in the UK (and across Europe) can be attributed to a number of causes. Firstly; low chick survival due to habitat loss and the increased used of pesticides leading to steep population declines prior to 1970. Though steps have been taken to counteract these measures, partridge continue to decline – the latter drop in numbers being attributed to an increase in natural depredation, at all stages of the birds life cycle. Furthermore, conflict with invasive pheasants and over-shooting – at times inadvertently, may be limiting the recovery of this species.
Much is now being done to counteract the worrying decline of this iconic farmland bird, the Game and Wildlife Conservation Trust in particular biting the bullet and trying to halt the trend. If you yourself wish to do something to benefit this species, taking part in the GWCT’s Partridge Count Scheme or helping out with localised counts would be a good place to start. Information on both of these found here. http://www.gwct.org.uk/research/species/birds/grey-partridge/. I shall touch on the subject in more depth in the future but looking at the causes the means to protect our remain partridge remain clear. Replenish degraded habitat, switch to a more organic way of farming (as many have done) and, perhaps more controversially, manage predators in areas where partridge populations are at particular risk. The issue with pheasants is a little harder to tackle and it would certainly be interesting to see just what is having a greater impact on partridge stocks – parasite transmission via pheasants, or depredation. It may not be possible to control both these factors in the same areas, one seemingly at odds with the other, though with more research perhaps a means to do this may become clear.
